3. A Paradigm Shift: The (New) Public Diplomacy
3.1 Basic Shifts characterizing the NPD
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New public diplomacy is compatible with this definition of public diplomacy but it is essential to look at the key shifts in the practice of public diplomacy in the past twenty years.
There are several shifts identified by N.J. Cull and this work would like to suggest that all of them pose challenge for the future deployment of public diplomacy and its new character.
3.1 Basic Shifts characterizing the NPD
3.3.1 Increasing number of international actors
First of the shifts is the increasing number of international actors, especially the non-traditional ones such as NGOs which are gaining their prominence and their very special place in international relations. One of the crucial and also divisive questions in public diplomacy today is who are the main players in the field of public diplomacy? Is it only the state which plays the major role or can we also count other international and transnational actors as the agents of public diplomacy? NGOs and different non-profit organizations can be and actually they are great promoters of the countries of their origin. Commercial success is also a way to promote culture or state of its origin. Most of the scholars agree that there is a need to draw a line in order to be able to assess public diplomacy and its policies appropriately. In most of the cases, state and its actions are considered to be the main actor of public diplomacy and it is necessary for the act to include some kind of governmental involvement in order to be considered as a part of public diplomacy. Even though, the engagement of non-traditional actors in the global politics and issues can help significantly to improve state´s image and promote the positive image of their homeland.67
67 Pigmann, G. A., 2010. Contemporary Diplomacy. Cambridge: Polty Press, p.17-31.
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3.3.2 New, real-‐time and global technologies
Second shift and a major challenge for public diplomacy are the new, real-time and global technologies. Internet, instant communication and new social media are phenomena which have changed public diplomacy fundamentally. The internet has transformed the entire setback and environment that people and states were used to live and work in. Internet has brought many advantages but also disadvantages. It has created a new reality where diplomats and especially public diplomats had to learn to live and learn how to take advantage of it.
Together with the real-time communications possibilities, internet has created a space which made traditional states weaker and diminished their ability to control national and international happenings. Nowadays, states are not able to control the content of the information circulating on internet and cannot stop the flow of the information that easily which can be a case for public diplomacy afterwards, in cases when the information leaked is negative or produce harmful consequences for country´s image. But new media can be also very helpful and substantially cheaper comparing to conventional media. Use of YouTube or Facebook is free and the effect can be relatively impressive in today interconnected world. 68
3.3.3 Blurred lines between domestic and international news
The third change is highly related to the challenge mentioned above. New technologies have blurred the lines between domestic and international news. Brian Hocking believes that media are themselves capable of shaping foreign policies, especially in cases such as humanitarian crises. This phenomenon is also called the “CNN effect”. Moreover, development of technologies has brought about what Livingstone has termed “post-CNN effect” where individuals and groups have direct access to instantaneous information which
68 Seib, P., 2012. Real Time Diplomacy. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 87-105.
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makes the governmental work much harder.69 We should also bear in minds that even though we live in democratic societies, information in the mainstream media might still be controlled and shaped by nation states and prominent international organizations.
3.3.4 Concepts derived from marketing
Fourth shift in public diplomacy practice is the increased use of concepts derived from marketing (especially place and nation branding) and also from the concepts growing from network communication theory. The concern with image management and branding has moved from the policy elites to broader market masses. Mark Leonard observed that “public diplomacy is based on a presupposition that image and reputation of a country are public goods which can create either an enabling or disabling environment for individual transactions.”70 More and more countries in the Western hemisphere which have an “image”
problem started to use international PR agencies to conduct public diplomacy on their behalf.
3.3.5 New terminology
According to Nicholas J. Cull71 the fifth major amendment of PD is a new terminology as a language of prestige adopting terms like soft power, branding or strategic narrative which are an indispensable part of the current public diplomacy. As new ideas and concepts entered the area of Public Diplomacy, new terms found their place which made public diplomacy somewhat chic and prominent.
3.3.6 People-‐to-‐people contact
An utterly imperative shift is the trend which speaks of departure from actor-to-people communication which used to be the scheme of public diplomacy during the Cold War era to
69 Hocking, B., 2009. Rethinking the ´New´ Public Diplomacy. In: J. Melissen, ed. The New Public Diplomacy: Soft Power in International Relations. Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan, p.28-43.
70 Hocking, B., 2009. Rethinking the ´New´ Public Diplomacy. In: J. Melissen, ed. The New Public Diplomacy: Soft Power in International Relations. Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan, p.28-43.
71 Cull, N. J., 2009. Public Diplomacy: Lessons from the past, Los Angeles: Figueroa Press.p.10.
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people-to-people contact for mutual enlightenment with international actor playing the role of facilitator. This form of engagement is very successful and inconspicuous as it doesn’t really show the direct action of a state.72
A senior Slovak diplomat also talks about the “personal diplomacy” which can be identified with this kind of public diplomacy. In this type of diplomacy an actor or a state is represented by its citizens, also but not only diplomats who build good image of the sending country abroad. For example, excellent students participating in international exchanges raise the awareness about the country and create a positive image. This strategy might be very narrow and not targeted at the huge mass audiences, but it can also focus on elites and desired audience which can influence policy-making.73
Personal diplomacy can be also pursued via “celebrity” diplomacy engaging with foreign publics, performing arts while touching political issues, development or after-catastrophes helping. Traditional diplomacy and professional diplomats play a significant role in this case too.74
3.4 Challenges for the (New) Public Diplomacy
3.4.1 Relationship Building
One of the features of the new public diplomacy is the phenomenon called relationship building. Professor Cull says that the relationship needs not to be between the actor and a foreign audience but could suitably be between two foreign audiences whose communication the actor wishes to facilitate.75 “Summit diplomacy” is also a way or an example of relationship building and international development but mostly used among the
72 Ibid.
73 Bátora, J. & Hozlárová, Z., 2009. Public Diplomacy: New Strategic tool of MFA?, Bratislava: Ministry of Forein Affairs, Slovakia.p.8.
74 Cooper, A. F., 2007. Celebrity Diplomacy. 1st ed. s.l.:Paradigm Publishers. p.4.
75 Cull, N. J., 2009. Public Diplomacy: Lessons from the past, Los Angeles: Figueroa Press.p. 13.