2.5 General Characteristics of Booths for Simultaneous Interpretation
2.5.1 Booth Size
Virtually all literature on the subject of the physical work environment of
interpreters and their sources of stress (Cooper et al, 1982; Jumpelt, 1985; Altman,
1990; AIIC Workload Study, 2002) cite booth size as a significant influence on the
stress of the interpreter, and consequently the quality of interpretation.
ISO 2603:1998 Booths for Simultaneous Interpretation contains a general
statement regarding the size of booths:
Each booth shall be wide enough to accommodate the required number of
interpreters seated comfortably side by side, each with sufficient table space to
work conveniently on several documents spread alongside each other. The booth
shall be high and deep enough to provide sufficient volume of air to enable
temperature control and draught-free air renewal as well as sufficient space for
the occupants to enter and leave without disturbing one another.
As this regulation is rather vague, ISO 2603 then specifies the minimum dimensions
for a booth for two interpreters: 2.50 meters wide, 2.40 meters deep, and 2.30 meters
high. At least one of the booths must be 3.20 meters wide for conference halls with up
to six booths, in order to accommodate three interpreters. All booths must be at least
3.20 meters wide for conference halls with more than 6 booths.
Generally, the size of the booth is dictated by the need to provide sufficient work
space and air volume for interpreters. The constant jostling of elbows in a booth with
insufficient work space can be a constant distraction to interpreters who need to
maintain a high level of concentration on conference proceedings. Moreover,
ventilation can be a problem when dealing with too small a space (Jumpelt, 1985).
As stated previously, direct and indirect ‘users’ of standards often have different
views and interests. Not surprisingly, Jumpelt (1985) points out that the interests of
conference center operators and conference interpreters often clashed on the issue of
booth size.
Labor-related laws of many nations, such as the UK and Australia, include
stipulations on workplace requirements, although most are vague on the minimum
floor space required for each person.
In the United Kingdom, Regulation 10 of the Workplace (Health and Safety and
Welfare) Regulations 1992 requires that each person shall have "sufficient floor area,
height and unoccupied space." The Approved Code of Practice goes on to explain that
each person should have a total minimum of 11 cubic meters of space unoccupied by
furniture, where the maximum height is 3 meters.
Section 21 of the Occupational Health and Safety Act of Australia states that the
employer must provide and maintain for employees a “working environment that is
safe and without risks to health.” “A good rule of thumb for personal space is to
allocate 6.25 square metres per individual workstation, including furniture and fittings,
but excluding passageways and amenities” (NT WorkSafe, 2003).
2.5.2 Visibility
Many communication experts, such as Kendon (1981), Preston (2005), and
Lozano and Tversky (2006), agree that in interpersonal communication, much of the
message is conveyed through nonverbal means, such as “bodily activity, gesture,
facial expression and orientation, posture and spacing, touch and smell, and of those
aspects of utterance that can be considered apart from the referential context of what
is said (Kendon, 1981).” According to Givens (2000), anthropologist and director of
the Center for Nonverbal Studies, “When we speak, our attention is focused on words
rather than body language. But our judgment includes both. The audience is
simultaneously processing both verbal and nonverbal cues.” According to
Taylor-Bouladon (2007), 55% of communication is based on visual cues, with 7%
based on the meaning of words and 38% on intonation.
Speech perception is processed simultaneously in audible and visible channels,
which complement one another “in that one source of information is more informative
when the other source is less so” (Moser-Mercer, 2005). This increases the possibility
of accurately processing the information because different information is carried
along different channels. The importance of multi-channel speech perception is even
more pronounced in a bilingual or multilingual setting, such as an international
conference, because speakers may be using a language other than their mother tongue,
leading to inadequate information perceived purely through audible means. Thus,
listeners and interpreters alike must integrate various information sources in order to
gain successful comprehension (Moser-Mercer, 2005).
Many events take place in a conference setting which are only accessible
through visual means, visual aids being the most obvious example (Jumpelt, 1985).
Büler (1985) differentiates between the following types of visual information
important for conference interpreting: (a) nonvocal signals from the sender (speaker),
(b) nonvocal signals from the listener (delegates), and (c) nonvocal signals in the
context of social interaction.
First, the ability to see a speaker’s facial expressions, hand and finger
movements, direction of gaze, posture, and general appearance allows for an easier
understanding of the spoken message and is generally recognized by interpreters and
laymen. Although often overlooked by architects and designers of conference halls,
the second type of visual information, nonvocal signals from the listeners, is
considered essential by interpreters, especially in smaller working groups (Büler,
1985), as listeners are also speakers and vice versa, making it much more important
for interpreters to rely on nonverbal turntaking cues to anticipate and prepare for a
switching of speakers. Thus, a clear view of the speaker and the conference room is so
important to the work of the conference interpreter, that it is included in the Code of
Professional Ethics. Furthermore, the “Agreement Concerning Conditions of
Employment of Short-term Conference Interpreters” (AIIC-United Nations
Agreement, 2000-2005) between AIIC and organizations of the United Nations
simply states that facilities for meetings should comply with ISO 2603:1983 for
built-in booths, ISO 4043:1981 for portable booths, and IEC 914: 1988 for equipment.
The third type of visual information, nonvocal signals in the context of social
interaction, can be further divided into interaction among conference participants,
between interpreters and delegates, and among interpreters (Büler, 1985). The ability
to view the entire conference hall is important to interpreting, as it provides the
interpreters the opportunity to witness the feedback and interplay between delegates
and speakers, as well as get the feel of the general conference procedure and
conference ritual. Remote interpreters, or interpreters working at somewhere other
than the conference location, though they may or may not be able to see conference
proceedings via visual support, reveal a lack of ability to be immersed in the virtual
environment, demotivation, lack of presence, and fatigue. Even with the help of visual
support, remote interpreting is still far more stressful for interpreters, since they are
not able to choose what they are looking at any given time (Moser-Mercer, 2005). As
Jumpelt (1985) states, “without visual contact with the participants and the
proceedings, it is difficult to identify with the subject of the conference.” Büler’s
study (1982, as cited in Büler, 1985) shows that many interpreters felt it was
important to have two-way visual communication between the interpreter and the
delegates, as to avoid working in a vacuum and facilitate visual feedback. Büler
concludes that without such a two-way visual communication, the “lack of
participation produces demotivation, thus increasing stress and reducing the quality of
performance.” As ISO 2603 includes standards regarding side windows (windows
between booths), it is easy to conclude that visual communication among interpreters
working in different booths is important. Büler (1985) cites the exchange of
information on documents or terminology and to provide the feeling of not being
isolated as two reasons why visibility between booths is considered essential by
interpreters.
Gree’s article (Gree, AIIC website) provides quite a few examples of poor booth
design, most of which have notably failed to provide interpreters with an adequate
view of conference proceeding. One example is the Pierre Baudis Convention Centre
in Toulouse, which houses booths with staggered glass panels, allowing interpreters to
neither read slides nor follow conference proceedings. Another is the Agbar Tower,
designed by acclaimed architect Jean Nouvel, whose booth windows cause so strong a
glare that interpreters work “whilst deeply absorbed in contemplating [their] own
reflection” (Gree, AIIC website).
In summary, nonverbal messages are integral to the communication process.
Interpreters depend on these messages to supplement their understanding of the
spoken message. In addition, visual information also provides cues for interpreters,
allowing them to anticipate and prepare for a switch in topics or speakers. A lack of
visual communication can lead to demotivation, isolation, increase of stress, fatigue,
and lower quality in performance of interpreters.
2.5.3 Ventilation
As stated earlier in the overview of ISO 2603, one of the three requirements that
interpreters’ booths are designed to meet is “a comfortable working environment
enabling interpreters to maintain the intense effort of concentration required by their
work.” Studies conducted on the effects of ventilation on health, comfort, and
productivity in non-industrial indoor environments show a strong association between
ventilation and comfort and health, as indicated by Sick Building Syndrome
symptoms, inflammation, infections, allergy, and short-term sick leave, as well as an
association between ventilation rate and productivity, as indicated by performance of
office work (Wargocki et al, 2002). Sick Building Syndrome consists of a number of
general symptoms, such as lethargy and headaches, mucous membrane symptoms,
such as a blocked or stuffy nose, dryness of the throat, and dry eyes, and skin
symptoms, which are caused by factors within the building, such as ventilation rate,
temperature, and humidity (Burge, 2004). Indeed, a well-ventilated booth is essential
to both the comfort of the interpreter as well as the quality of interpretation. ISO 2603
goes on to give specific standards regarding air quality within the booth:
The air supply should be 100% fresh (i.e. not recycled). The air conditioning
system shall be independent from that of the rest of the building and of the
conference hall. Air renewal shall be seven times per hour and the carbon
dioxide concentration shall not exceed 0.1%. The temperature shall be
controllable between 18 and 22 C by means of an individual regulator in each
booth. Relative humidity shall be between 45% and 65%.
In the United States, the American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air
Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) has established and updated ASHRAE Standard
62, providing designers of buildings with a guide to ventilation for acceptable indoor
air quality (IAQ). The 1981 standard’s acceptable carbon dioxide levels were stated as
to be maintained below 1,000 parts per million (ppm), but this was later revised and
eventually dropped in the latest 2004 standard. This recommendation was used not
only to maintain carbon dioxide levels, but also as an indicator of other factors.
Carbon dioxide is an indicator of how well the ventilation system is working, or what
amount of outside air is entering the building. If there is a high concentration of
carbon dioxide, it is likely that there is a buildup of other contaminates that may be
hard to detect, which results in poor indoor air quality.
According to recommendations by the Taiwan Environmental Protection
Administration, carbon dioxide levels should not exceed 1,000 ppm, and temperatures
should be controlled between 15 to 28 degrees Celsius.
High levels of carbon dioxide are also associated with headaches, eye problems,
nasal symptoms, respiratory tract conditions, and general feelings of fatigue (Burge et
al, 1987). The accepted level of 1,000 ppm for carbon dioxide as suggested by ISO
2603, ASHRAE, and Taiwan EPA may still be too high as “studies have shown that a
level of 1000ppm carbon dioxide will reduce the ability to concentrate by about 30
percent” (Myhrvold, Olsen, and Laridsen, 1996).
ISO 2603 stipulates that booth temperature should be controllable between 18
and 22 degrees Celsius. The Taiwan Environmental Protection Administration gives a
recommended range of 15 to 28 degrees Celsius. Burge (2004) finds that, in Northern
Europe, temperatures above 23 degrees Celsius cause increased Sick Building
Syndrome symptoms.
Not only is carbon dioxide levels and temperatures important to indoor air
quality, humidity is critical as well. In terms of humidity, ISO 2603 considers the
optimal range to be from 45% to 65%. ASHRAE standards are somewhat more
relaxed, recommending that “indoor humidities should be maintained between 30 and
70 percent in occupied buildings” (as cited in Burton, 2006). It is usual to hear of
complaints that the air is “too clammy” or “smells funny” when the indoor air is too
humid, from 65 to 70 percent, because this high level of humidity either “requires
lower temperatures and more air movement to achieve comfort” or “supports the
growth of microbiological agents such as bacteria, mold, and fungi” (Burton, 2006).
The effects of poor indoor air quality, as caused by factors such as ventilation,
temperature, and humidity, on the performance of office workers and their symptoms
are well documented. It is reasonable to say that these negative effects have a
significant impact on interpreters and the quality of their work. In one study, some
interpreters noted that “the ventilation was so poor that ‘I’m obliged to walk in and
out of the booth’” (Cooper, 1982). Ventilation is an important factor in booth quality;
however, due to time restraints and the limited scope of this study, a cursory
examination of this subject, rather than a full-scale research, will be conducted.
2.5.4 Acoustics
One of the main requirements laid out in the introduction of ISO 2603 is
“acoustic separation between different languages spoken simultaneously, without
mutual interference between languages interpreted or with the speaker in the hall” and
“efficient two-way communication between the booths and the conference hall.” As
mentioned previously, interpreting is an act that requires a high level of concentration,
and background noises from adjacent booths, the meeting hall, or other parts of the
building are distractions for interpreters, thereby prohibiting interpreters from
producing optimum quality interpretation. In Altman’s study (1990), interpreters
consider the quality of sound transmission to be a most crucial factor in the
interpreter’s ability to bridge the communication gap.
Technical specifications are provided in ISO 2603 with regard to acoustics,
sound-proofing, and sound equipment. However, this study will not go into detail in
this subject due to the limited scope of study.
2.5.5 Lighting
During a conference, interpreters not only have to see the speaker, delegates,
and conference hall in general, but also have to refer to many documents before them,
such as lists of terminology, prepared speeches by the speakers, proceedings of the
conference, and other materials. Therefore, a well-lit booth is essential for producing
optimum quality interpretation.
Cooper (1982) mentions sufficient lighting or lack of it as one of the physical
environmental factors in job stress. Interpreters have commented that lighting which
is too strong can cause excessive strain or sensitivity to the eyes. Likewise, a lack of
lighting makes it difficult for interpreters to refer to their documents or notes. If
lighting installations are poorly designed or placed, visual discomfort can arise,
resulting in red, sore, itchy, and watering eyes; headaches and migraine attacks,
gastrointestinal problems; and aches and pains associated with poor posture. There are
many different aspects of lighting that can cause visual discomfort, such as
insufficient light and glare (Boyce, 2006). Poor lighting, such as too much or too little
light, can strain the eyes and cause discomfort, which in turn makes it difficult to
perform to one’s best ability (CCOHS website). Glare occurs when there is too much
light, either directly from the light source or a reflection, causing the eyes to adjust to
the brightest level of light, thereby making it more difficult to see the details in darker
or duller areas (Boyce, 2006; CCOHS website).
ISO 2603 stipulates many regulations for booth lighting. For one, lighting in the
booth should be independent from those in the conference hall, since hall lighting may
be dimmed for slides or presentations. Booths should have both work lights for
illuminate the working surface, and general lights for which a switch should be
available by the booth door. Light sources should not cause glare, and should be
placed in a way so as to avoid shadows being cast by the working interpreter. In
addition, ISO 2603 requires that both work and general lighting systems be equipped
with dimmer switches located within reach of the interpreter working. This study
speculates that dimmer switches are necessary for interpreters to control the amount
of light they receive so as to avoid too much or too little light.
Although there are many issues to explore in terms of lighting, due to restraints
of time and scope, this study will only touch upon this subject in further research.
2.5.6 Seating
Due to the increase of muskoskeletal problems of office workers due to
inappropriate seating, the importance of sitting posture and design of seats have been
recognized by researchers, designers, and manufacturers (Marmaras and Nathanael,
2006). Sitting is hard work, in terms of ergonomic and occupational health
perspectives. Continuous seating for prolonged periods of time has been shown to
cause discomfort, aching, or even irreversible injuries (Marmaras and Nathanael,
2006), even diseases of the spine (Cranz, 1998). In addition to personal discomfort,
poor seating can cause one to suffer from fatigue, poor performance, and interference
with work (Eastman Kodak Company, 1983).
The increasing awareness of the importance of seating has given rise to a
number of ergonomic requirements, including (a) the seat height should be adjustable,
(b) the seat should be stable, (c) the seat should allow the user to move freely, (d) the
seat should have armrests, and (e) the seat lining material should be water absorbent
(Marmaras and Nathanael, 2006). Eastman Kodak Company (1983) recommends the
use of chairs with casters for seated workplaces without footrests.
For interpreters, uncomfortable seating is one of the physical environmental
factors in sources of stress (Cooper, 1982). Interpreters suffer from discomfort when
chairs do not provide sufficient support, especially when they are required to work for
lengthy periods (Cooper, 1982). The layout of the conference hall and visibility from
the booth may also aggravate posture, as interpreters often need to bend forward to
see the presentation, resulting in unnecessary strain on their necks and backs (Cooper,
1982).
To ensure a comfortable working environment for interpreters, ISO 2603 states
that “for each interpreter and technician, there shall be a comfortable chair with the
following characteristics: five legs, adjustable height, adjustable back-rest, arm-rests,
castors producing no perceptible noise, and upholstery of heat-dissipating material.”
In addition, the standard adds that “independent, movable foot-rests should be
available”
In this section, it is clear that sitting for long periods of time in inappropriate
seating can cause discomfort and poor performance. Thus, it is crucial to provide
interpretation booths with comfortable seating in order to ensure optimal quality
interpreting.