Chapter 2 Literature Reviews
2.2 Computer Assisted Instruction
In short, digital learning (e-Learning) means applying computer technology in learning. Different from the conventional classroom, all course content is delivered by computers. Digital learning combines software and hardware facilities to assist language teaching, so called, computer assisted language teaching (CAI). CAI is a product, which combines virtual and actual situations, allowing students to learn languages in a more convenient, autonomous and convivial environment. The advantages of CAI are that it is neither time nor place dependent. It can be accessed at any time and in virtually any place where access to a network is available. As such it is particularly suited to lifelong learning. It facilitates immediate feedback with mistakes corrected interactively.
However, it also has drawbacks including poorly developed products, high product/course costs, and poor production quality assurance and will, of course, be unavailable to people who are not computer literate (Alderson, 2000; Eshani
& Knodt, 1998;Dunkel, 1999).
Additionally some important learning materials may be classified, such as:
national examinations, graduate school curricula, undergraduate curricula, secondary education curricula, elementary education curricula, computer application curricula, language learning curricula, social education curricula and lifelong learning curricula (Lu, 2005). The characteristics of e-learning are that students are not bound by conventional course schedules run at fixed times and in pre-determined locations. Students can set their own self-learning pace depending on their situation and specific requirements.
In a report on American e-learning industry and digital learning technology development on March 2nd 2000, a financial services company, W. R.
Hambrecht + Co. stated that digital learning is divided into four types (Hambrecht, 2000):
Distance learning: Distance learning mainly uses computer, internet or corporate networks as the medium for learning. Distance learning can be divided into synchronous and asynchronous. Synchronous learning indicates a real-time information transmission. All learning participants, including the sender and the receiver, visually interact via a transmission system. Teachers transmit teaching images direct to the learner. Both the teacher and learner are in a simulated conventional environment with interaction instantly facilitated. Asynchronous learning simulates a classroom situation with typical teaching, assignments, quizzes, Q & A and problem solving. Students can access a virtual classroom to interact with the teachers and other students. Students are provided with course content or handouts which are pre-recorded and uploaded to the web platform.
Students may interact with the teacher or other students via a forum or chat room. Because the interaction in asynchronous learning is not instantaneous, the learning won’t be confined to a specific time or space.
On-line learning: On-line learning has become an important learning route in the educational field due to the explosion in the development of the internet. Basically, it is web-based learning (WBL) that provides synchronous and asynchronous methods. On-line learning coverage is broader than computer-based learning which does not offer real-time
e-learning applies more media such as interactive TV/disc, video, tape or satellite communication. On-line learning has obviously become the main source of e-learning generating a limitless and ultra-convenient learning resource.
Computer-based learning (CBL): CBL offers self-paced independent learning without interaction or network links such as the learning discs provided with English magazines in any bookstore (Lee, 2001). CBL is a self-paced independent study in which the learner follows his/her own learning process and progresses at a self-determined pace. The language learner receives an on-line web-based learning program and does not get feedback or teaching from others. This type of learning method is more suitable to highly-motivated, self-starting students.
E-learning: e-learning is also called Technology-based learning (TBL). The curriculum is personalized and diverse. In electronic learning, one of the characteristics is that transmission speed is increased directly in line with the application of multimedia tools (Chen, 2010). In general, e-learning refers to electronic technology and its resulting application in educational learning. It includes multimedia such as traditional audio-visual education, computer-assisted teaching and digital learning and online learning.
According to the American Society of Training and Education (ASTD), e-learning is identified as all kinds of knowledge or skills learned through the medium of electronic technology.
Moreover, there are four major modules of intelligent tutoring systems (Swartz and Yazdani, 1992):
Module 1: An expert module which stores the domain knowledge.
Module 2: A learner module which describes the students’ knowledge about the domain and allows the tutor module to plan the interaction between the system and the learner.
Module 3: A tutor module which provides the tutoring strategies and learning objectives.
Module 4: A graphical user interface.
Some research results indicated that the learning approach utilizing graphics in text was preferable to those generated on the internet (Bisoux, 2006).
Making good use of computers targets two senses (hearing and sight) thus stimulating visionary and auditory responses.
Various researches have been focused on the application of CAI in foreign language learning/teaching. Lam (2000) concluded that using the internet in writing classes made a dramatic improvement. Lee (1998) used on-line debate and on-line newspapers to teach Spanish with positive results in both speaking and reading.
Many more researchers found that computer-based grammar teaching is more effective than conventional teaching imparted in the classroom through the medium of the teacher (Nagata, 1997; Nutta, 1998; Soo & Ngeow, 1998;
Bradley & Lomicka, 2000). On the other hand, some researchers suggested that a combination of conventional teaching with CAI is effective in gaining grammatical understanding (Liou, Wang & Jung-Yeh, 1992).
On the contrary, some other researchers on the application of CAI in foreign language learning/teaching found no significant difference whether using CAI working alone or in a classroom environment (Chang & Smith, 1999; Davis &
In a CAI learning environment, students can control the media (computer) and set their own learning pace (Bax, 2003). This motivates low achievers and improves self-confidence. Through interaction instant feedback is obtained and students actively manipulate the learning materials. Location and time barriers are torn down. In a comfortable environment they can review as they like.
Integrating technology into learning provides an environment in which language acquisition and practice are simultaneous (Butler-Pascoe, Ellen &
Wiburg, 2005). The computer is an accessible/inexpensive tool for language learning providing just-in-time solutions allowing the teacher to monitor participation. Students in an e-learning course are proved to possess a stronger learning motivation (Rovai, Ponton, Wighting, & Baker, 2007). Computer technology offers great help in listening, reading and conversation. It can correct students’ pronunciation and intonation instantaneously through interaction. Applying computer technology for listening/ training drills and reading comprehension, especially vocabulary acquisition, generates a better performance (Chen & Liu, 2007; Su & Huang, 2008; Tsai & Jenks, 2007).
Making use of computer technology to teach writing is obviously less common.
Most of the speech recognition systems on the Taiwanese market currently are designed to score students as they interact. This score may be generated by pronunciation, a phoneme, a tone, a beat, or the volume of pronunciation. Most of the speech recognition systems currently available in Taiwan are programmed to respond and correct mispronunciation.