This section presents a series of fundamental notions used in the book with the aim of contextualising the issues to be addressed. These notions and concepts can be found in numerous publications that in turn quote ‘official’ definitions in international agreements such as the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD, 1992; CBD, 2009b), UNFCCC (1992) or glossaries of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2007; 2014). For the theme of this publication, specifically, the frame of reference is the CBD document Voluntary Guidelines for the design and effective implementation of ecosystem-based approaches to climate change adaptation and disaster risk reduction (CBD, 2018) as one of the more recent official documents.
It is not the task of this publication to compare the different definitions of a single concept, but rather to try and simplify them so they can be easily understood by a broad group of readers. An exhaustive explanation of governance and EbA governance has already been made, so these concepts are not included below. Other relevant notions will be presented in chapters 2 to 6.
Adaptation:
A process that can be interpreted from the standpoints of either society or natural resources. Both deal with adjustment to current or expected climate (in the short, medium and long term) and its effects, in order to moderate potential harm or deterioration (of living conditions or ecosystem functions, respectively) these conditions can cause. According to IPCC (2014), it also includes taking advantage of beneficial opportunities those climate changes can provide.
Adaptation capacity (adaptive capacity):
The combination of strengths, attributes and resources (human, institutional, infrastructure and others) possessed by a person, community, society or organisation making it possible to take actions that can reduce adverse impacts of climate change and ‘recover’ from them (Reid et al., 2017). This capacity includes the resources and legal authority necessary to respond to the change as reflection of a governance system that adjusts to uncertainty. It also includes the capacity of participation in which the people affected have the rights, obligations and resources to play a role in decision making. In this sense, this capacity of participation reduces stakeholders’ risk of being marginalised or not taken into account in governance processes concerning climate change (Cosens et al., 2017).
Adaptive capacity is another of the three fundamental components of the vulnerability equation:
sensitivity, exposure and adaptation capacities (see definition of vulnerability), inasmuch as capacity is the component that can be directly improved through diverse mechanisms and tools (Chapter 2).
Appropriation:
Process through which stakeholders assimilate and internalise, as being of self-interest, actions taken around human (social) and environmental wellbeing. Themes, actions and projects become an integral part of people’s lives without the need for incentives or outside influence from other people to continue with their execution. Appropriation allows organised groups to own these shared interests and push decision makers to carry out their actions efficiently and effectively.
Benefits (co-benefits):
Direct or indirect goods, products or services generated for people or ecosystems by applying EbA measures. These can have an ecological, social, cultural and monetary value. For example, reforestation can generate intangible benefits such as improving air quality, conserving water quality, positively affecting local climate and encouraging the pollination of species important for food security.
Biodiversity:
The variability among living organisms from all sources, including terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they form part. This includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems (variability of genes, species and ecosystems).
Some parameters to measure how biodiverse an ecosystem is, for example, relate to the number and abundance of species within a specific geological space.
Climate change:
A change in the state of the climate that can be identified (e.g., by using statistical tests) through changes in the mean and/or the variability of its properties, and which persists for an extended period, typically decades or longer. Climate change may be due to natural internal processes or external forcings, or to persistent anthropogenic changes in the composition of the atmosphere or in land use. For the purposes of this book, this term also includes climate variability. It involves modifications of the average state and other statistical characteristics, as well as extreme events at all temporal scales and at more extensive spatial scales than those of weather events. Sea level rise primarily affecting the coastal zones of Meso America is a direct effect of climate change, while droughts or the concentration of rainfall in fewer days in certain areas are effects of climate variability
EbA measures:
Options and actions based on the maintenance and restoration of ecosystems that in turn improve quality of life for human populations and their capacity to adapt to climate change.
Ecosystem:
The collection of communities of plants, animals and micro-organisms and their non-living environment that interact within a specific geographical unit. It is a functional system that possesses physical parts (structure) and dynamic processes of material and energy transformation (function).
Natural resources and biodiversity form part of the ecosystem, as do human beings since they interact with the goods and services ecosystems provide. These systems have been classified in
10 Governance for ecosystem-based adaptation
different ways, most commonly as terrestrial ecosystems (such as forests), aquatic (wetlands, for example) and marine (for example, coral reefs).
Ecosystem functions:
All of the processes in which material and energy are transformed (energy flow within ecosystems).
These are the physical, chemical and biological processes that occur through both living beings and in their interaction with the surroundings (habitat). Examples include all of the nutrient cycles, biomass production, photosynthesis and pollination, which make up ecosystem services and benefit human beings (Creed & van Noordwijk, 2018).
Ecosystem health (ecological integrity):
Refers to the good condition of an ecosystem in terms of structure and the functions it carries out (analogous to human health, for example). In other contexts the term is used to denote the ecological integrity of ecosystems wherein both the structure (species and habitats) and function (transformation of matter and energy) are found in natural ranges of variation and can sustain and recover from disturbances due to natural dynamics or human interventions (Williams et al., 2012).
Ecosystem restoration:
Processes implemented to restore the resources, species, community structures, productivity and services provided by ecosystems that have been degraded, damaged or destroyed. This makes it possible to increase their resilience to changes and preserve their biodiversity (Creed & van Noordwijk, 2018).
Ecosystem services:
The benefits people obtain from nature. They derive from the inherent characteristics of ecosystems (see definition of ecosystem), from both their structure and functions. Some of these benefits are tangible resources such as those obtained from fishing, logging and water (supply). Others are not as tangible but exist if ecosystems are in good condition, such as pollination, erosion control, flood regulation, climate regulation and absorption of carbon (regulatory services). Ecosystems also have spiritual, cultural and aesthetic values (cultural services). All these services would be impossible without those necessary for their production and maintenance (support services) such as soil formation, maintenance of the nutrient cycle, oxygen production, habitat and biodiversity, among others (Layke, 2009).
Empowerment:
The process by which local communities and other disadvantaged social groups acquire power and independence, as well as the ability to make oneself known and heard to achieve proposed changes.
It means acquiring security (confidence) in themselves (capacities), legitimacy and recognition from other players to be heard and influence political decision-making structures.
Green infrastructure:
While closely related to natural infrastructure, this term refers to improved structure and functioning so that ecosystems can provide their services. The term is generally used in relation to processes
primarily in urban areas; green infrastructure is commonly combined with grey infrastructure (Cohen-Shacham et al., 2016).
Grey infrastructure:
Constructions or works carried out mainly in urban zones to channel water (dikes, walls), provide drinking water and sanitation services (delivery networks, treatment plants), hold soil (retaining walls) and others, using traditional artificial materials. These types of works are generally detrimental to ecosystems and their services as they fail to take costs or geographical location into consideration.
Human well-being:
The way of living of people or social groups, including elements necessary for life. It refers to the array of elements required to live adequately (with quality) and in peace. The dimensions of human well-being (Evaluación de los Ecosistemas del Milenio, 2005) encompass basic material needs for a good life, health, good social relations, security, and freedom of choice and action. It also comprises livelihood assets or capital (human, natural, social/cultural, physical and financial) and is closely related to participation capacity and identity for decision making.
Low-regrets adaptation options:
Actions that could potentially deliver net socio-economic benefits to local communities and ecosystems whatever the extent of future climate change. They maximise positive aspects and minimise the negative aspects of nature-based solutions. Many of the conventional options in ecosystem conservation, such as restoration of certain wetlands, are socially and environmentally beneficial, with or without impacts from climate change.
Maladaptation:
Actions designed for climate change adaptation that, owing to a number of factors, instead increase ecosystem and societal vulnerability to climate-related risks. Generally, maladaptation relates to development policies and measures that deliver short-term gains but over a longer period turn out to be harmful. It also includes actions favouring certain sectors of the population in detriment to others, as well as measures applied in some parts of ecosystems that are harmful to resources and services in others.
Natural capital:
The stock of natural resources in ecosystems that, combined with other capital or assets for sustainable livelihoods, produces ecosystem services (Costanza, 2017). These resources include the earth’s crust, minerals, energy reserves, soils, water, air, atmosphere, climate and all living organisms (Creed & van Noordwijk, 2018). They do not require human activities to exist, unlike other capital (physical or built, human, financial, social or cultural).
Natural infrastructure:
An approach that seeks to restore ecosystem structure, function and composition in order to maintain the services they provide. Natural infrastructure is an important part of EbA (Cohen-Shacham et al., 2016).
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Nature-based solutions (natural solutions):
Actions to protect, sustainably manage and restore natural or modified ecosystems to address societal challenges effectively and adaptively while simultaneously providing benefits for human beings and biodiversity (Cohen-Shacham et al., 2016). It is a new concept in science and conservation that emphasises work with ecosystems, their resources and their services instead of traditional engineering solutions for climate change adaptation. These solutions must be adjusted to the different local contexts, take traditional, local and scientific knowledge into account and include the active participation of all actors. They must also be an integral part in the design of policies, legislation and institutionality from local to national and transboundary level so that they can be implemented transparently and effectively.
Negotiation:
Process of harmonising different interests in agreements or arrangements concerning a certain matter (Iza & Stein (eds.), 2009).
Political advocacy:
The conscious and directed action of a social group in order to change a given situation. It is predicated on a setting with multiple actors, projects, interests and perspectives as opposed to some unilateral action. Political advocacy should include addressing power relations and conflicts that can be resolved through negotiation, consensus building and agreements, but can also sometimes lead to confrontations (IUCN, 2006). Capacities to influence or impact on power and decision-making groups are an important ingredient of negotiations, and to promote changes in policy, legal and institutional frames making them functional with respect to climate change.
Resilience:
The ability of a system and its component parts to anticipate, absorb, accommodate or recover from the negative effects of climate change while ensuring the preservation of its basic structures and function, capacity to organise and the capacity to adapt to stress and change (IPCC, 2007). A distinction is usually made between ecosystem resilience, referring to its tolerance to the impacts of external factors without suffering irreversible changes (Reid et al., 2017), and human resilience.
The latter is the ability to buffer impacts or cope with changes. It requires resistance, or capacity to absorb the impact, recovery or time required to return to the state of things prior to the impact, and learning in order to better anticipate potential future changes. Increasing people’s resilience depends on their livelihoods, adaptation capacity and good governance based on solid institutions and clear, inclusive legal frames.
Social systems:
Similarly to ecosystems, this refers to the assemblage of people or groups of people who interact with particular and specific functions and characteristics. The main elements of a social system are values, norms, customs, uses and agreements. The aim of a social system is to pursue and improve livelihoods through networks and connections, participation in formal groups and relations of trust and exchange (DFID, 1999). Linkage and interaction between social systems and ecosystems is vital for good EbA governance.
Strategic territorial planning:
In general terms, spatial or land use planning beyond traditional urban/rural planning, accounting for impacts and influences of other sectoral policies, geographical spaces and the use of terrestrial and/or marine resources, as well as other change factors such as climate change and disaster risks. Its aim is to plan for future development needs and opportunities in particular geographical jurisdictions taking into consideration policies relevant to the area and its people, and for more equitable distribution of economic development (Lausche, 2011).
Territorial planning:
Systematic analysis of physical, social and economic factors to select the options most apt to increase productivity, be sustainable and meet society’s needs. The aim is to plan appropriate uses of a given geographical space without deteriorating natural resources. Such a plan inevitably requires the participation of all actors and solid institutionality capable of balancing development, conservation and the well-being of human populations.
Vulnerability:
The propensity or predisposition of an ecosystem, person or group of people to be adversely affected (IPCC, 2014). Vulnerability to climate change depends on multiple factors, so must be assessed in each particular case. Three specific components are defined, in general. The first is exposure, involving variations in climate (temperature, rainfall, seasons with extreme events or hurricanes), and usually refers to geographic locations (for example, people who live near watercourses are more exposed to floods). The second is sensitivity, or the degree to which a system is affected by external stimulae (SINAC, 2013; IPCC, 2007). This depends on the particular characteristics of each system.
For example, a change in temperature or rainfall can affect a dry forest differently than a tropical wet forest. On the other hand, people with few resources are more sensitive to these variations. The third component is adaptive capacity (see definition). The degree of exposure to climate changes in the Meso American region is very difficult to modify. The same occurs with the sensitivity of certain ecosystems (such as coral reefs with respect to higher water temperature) and communities (native people in their territories). For these reasons, it is increasingly important to work toward improving the adaptive capacities of people and communities to lower their exposure and sensitivity. This includes improving the capacities of government institutions to cope with the current and future EbA governance challenges of climate scenarios.