CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.3 The Design of Game and Consumer-Purchase Intention for Extension Products
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were derived from a combination of at least two of the following features : (1) coping-escape (i.e., the person wants to escape reality and deal with real problem (stress, aggression, and anxiety in the virtual world); (2) fantasy (i.e., the person likes to be immersed in the virtual world to explore things); (3) skill development (i.e., the person plays games in order to improve his/her coordination, concentration, or other essential skills); (4) omnipotence-power (i.e., the person has the power to do all things); (5) recreation (i.e., the person can enjoy relaxing to engage in games or activities); (6) competition (i.e., the person likes to compete with and defeat others in order to acquire a sense of achievement); and (7) social (i.e., the person likes meeting, chatting, and playing with other players).
2.3 The Design of Game and Consumer-Purchase Intention for Extension Products
The consumer’s beliefs, attitudes, and behavior factors construct consumer-purchase intention, and these are important factors in predicting consumer-purchasing behavior (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975). There is much research that focuses on situations where continual purchases by a buyer are used to predict customer behavior, such as Anderson and Mittal (2000), who discussed satisfaction and performance and Dick and Basu (1994), who researched loyalty (especially pledges as well as trust using loyalty establishment and satisfaction) to make predictions about customer-purchasing intentions. These studies provide more understanding about the predictors of purchase intentions and have been used in satisfying diverse consumer needs.
Although consumer-purchase intention is perhaps the best predictor of actual behavior, it has long been recognized that the answer to stated consumer-purchase intention questions are not perfectly correlated with actual purchases (Morwitz, 2001). Supporting consumers’ actual purchase behavior may lead to more satisfied consumers and increase purchase intention. On the basis of analysis across the different service industries, Zeithaml, Berry, and Parasuraman (1996) stated that customers’ actual purchase behaviors and attitudinal intentions are mainly associated with a service provider’s ability to get its consumer to (1) remain loyal to them, (2) recommend them to relatives or other consumers, and (3) pay more under increased pricing.
In order to trigger customer-purchase intentions, manufacturers/retailers have to explore the impact of shopping orientations. The tactic of game design nowadays is one of the emerging strategies in which to entice customer attention and involvement in an environment linked with the enterprise. Through carefully designed activities that target customer-intrinsic motivation, users could either become customers or customers could purchase more products or services.
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Below we discuss the impact of motivation elements of game-design strategy that have a positive influence on consumers’ intention to purchase.
Lazarus (1993) found that the coping motivator stems from stress-management literature. Under stressful or threatening situations, the coping motivator presents a personal style in decision making or problem solving (Lazarus, 1993). Thus, coping should have direct behavioral implications. Some studies suggest that coping with stress and uncertainty directly affect people’s choice of behavior or decisions (Creyer and Kozup, 2003; Luce, Payne, and Bettmam, 2000). If consumers tend to adopt avoidance-coping strategies, it is expected that they will have a negative attitude toward adopting a new technology and will be less likely to purchase a new product. Meanwhile, consumers using confrontation-coping strategies are more likely to develop a more positive attitude and a stronger intention toward adopting a new technology. It is expected that coping has a direct effect on the attitude toward adoption and purchase intention. Thus we can form the following the hypothesis :
H1. The design of coping has a positive influence on consumers’ purchase intention
The escape motivator comes from escape theory, which was formulated as a hybrid of self-awareness theory and action-identification theory (Baumeister, 1990). According to escape theory, playing a game is often the result of consumers needing a way to escape from, or mask, their own self-awareness and the reality of their lives. Many consumers recognized there were unhappy with the circumstances of their daily lives and turned to gaming as a way of forgetting about their problems and escaping as a means of avoidance. Consequently, their unwillingness and inability to manage the details of their lives caused their situation to become more difficult and their need to escape becomes greater. In turn, this behavior resulted in more purchasing (Faber and Vohs, 2003). Thus we can form the following the hypothesis :
H2. The design of escape has a positive influence on consumers’ purchase intention
The fantasy motivator is related to flow theory. Csinkszentmihalyi (1997) characterized flow as involving machine interactivity, enjoyment, loss of self-consciousness, and self-reinforcing.
Flow has been linked with other types of consumer activities where the individual becomes so
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engrossed with the activity as to create a pleasurable experience (Mannell, Zuzanek, and Larson, 1988). Hoffman and Novak (1996) argued that an online shopping environment could bring about a state of flow, which in turn leads to more browsing and, ultimately, purchasing.
Meanwhile, Smith and Sivakumar (2004) propose that flow facilitates online behaviors such as browsing, shopping, and repeat purchases. Thus, this belief is that consumers who are deeply engrossed in a product that is visually appealing, entertaining, informative, or perceived to be useful may experience a state of flow. Thus we can form the following the hypothesis :
H3. The design of fantasy has a positive influence on consumers’ purchase intention
One of the most important antecedents of flow is an individual’s level of skill (Csikszentmihalyi, 1977; Ghani and Deshpande 1994; Hoffman and Novak 1996; Novak, Hoffman, and Yung, 2000).
The skill-development motivator was measured as perceived by the user and not through observation or a standard efficacy and defined as an individual judgment of one’s capability to use a computer (Compeau and Higgins, 1995). Computer self-efficacy has been found to affect computer use, often through its effect on the emotional state of the user by reducing his computer anxiety (Marakas, Mun, and Johnson, 1998). Similarly, skills have been consistently found to be significant antecedents to flow. Therefore, we expect that as online consumers perceive their self-skills to be higher, they will be more likely to have positive emotional and cognitive responses to the company/brand they purchase. Thus we can form the following the hypothesis :
H4. The design of skill development has a positive influence on consumers’ purchase intention
The recreation motivator’s major component is enjoyment. Prus and Dawson (1991) identified recreational shopping as embracing "...notions of shopping as interesting, enjoyable, entertaining and leisurely activity." In other words, recreation is characterized by the shopper-experience gratification from the shopping process per se, either in conjunction with or independent of the acquisition of goods and services (Bellenger and Korgaonkar, 1980; Guiry, Mägi, and Lutz, 2006). It is important for enterprises to note that the recreation motivator that is attendant to the shopping process is anticipated by the shopper and hence becomes a goal that is sought
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deliberately and may even be the impetus for a shopping trip. Thus we can form the following the hypothesis :
H5. The design of recreation has a positive influence on consumers’ purchase intention
As most games are goal directed, competitive situations or competition motivators are commonly present in game-play contexts (Frederick-Recascino, Schuster-Smith, and Frederick-Recascino, 2003). Early research revealed that competition in games plays a vital role in increasing intrinsic motivation. For example, Ryan, Rigby, and Przybylski (2006) tested how well self-determination theory (SDT) applies to game-playing motivation; results of them an experiment suggested that competence and autonomy were significantly associated with game enjoyment. However, the effect of competition upon intrinsic motivation may not work the same manner for all people (Locke, Latham, Smith, Wood, and Bandura, 1990). Harackiewicz and Sansone (1991) compared individuals with high in motivations to individuals with low in motivations and predicted that individuals high in motivations should respond positively to competition. Consider together, the company can be perceived by a consumer as positively competition in the same way an game is challenging or competing. The process of discovering information and using the competition motivator in game design can makes consumers feel challenging and ambitious with positive effects on consumers’ purchase intention. Thus we can form the following the hypothesis :
H6. The design of competition has a positive influence on consumers’ purchase intention
The social motivator is related to social-identity theory. Originally from social identity theory (Ellemers, Kortekaas, and Ouwerkerk, 1999), affective identification exerts an influence on purchase intention and behavior (Chu and Li, 2012) because consumers often go beyond their personal identity to develop a social identity with the hope of articulating their sense of self (Brewer, 1991). Thus, they might identify with companies that provide a good service or product (Scott and Lane, 2000). Affective identification causes consumers to become psychologically attached to the company and care about the company (Bhattacharya and Sen, 2003), which positively motivates their purchase intention. Because consumers identify with a company rather than just its products or services, their purchase intention is likely to be immune to minor
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variations in product (or service) formulation and extend, ceteris paribus, to all the products and services provided by the company (e.g., Bhattacharya and Sen, 2003). Thus we can form the following the hypothesis :
H7. The design of social activities has a positive influence on consumers’ purchase intention 2.4 The Design of Game for Different Types of Consumers
In order to further understand the customer behavior of game playing, we use the taxonomy of game-design elements by Demetrovics et al. (2011) to verify the recently developed game programs by several enterprises between 2011 and 2013 (see Table 1 for a description of the studied game programs). These game programs were developed to promote brands, sell products or services, or enhance customer relationships. The authors applied various motivational elements in the design of the game activities to target different kinds of customers (see Table 2 for the analysis of game design of selected studies).
Case
Selected Case Description & Source link
Objectives
Uniqlo Lucky Line is for people eagerly awaiting the opening of a new UNIQLO Taipei store. Instead of queuing at the real store, the store site provided a chance to stand in line on the UNIQLO website via Facebook and Twitter.
Uniqlo Lucky Machine is a pinball flash-based game offering players the chance to win prizes and online uniqlo products.
Uniqlo Heat-Tech T-Shirt Games is giving away free Heat-tech T-shirts in Taiwan. A campaign ran from October through November 2012. Customers can play a game in real life or online to win a free piece of Heat-Tech T-shirt.
http://www.uniqlo-events.com/heattech/
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4.Decode Jay-Z and Bing
A multi-platform search experience and
interactive game that helps fans decode Jay-Z’s life and lyrics.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XNic4wf8A Yg
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5.Nike Plus Nike+ Basketball is an interactive experience V V V
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that lets you track your in-game activity with Nike+ basketball shoes and later review, analyze, and share information using the Nike+Basketball mobile app.
Tipp-Ex designed an exciting interactive video entitled, “A hunter Shoots a Bear (2010)” that used TippEx whip-out to erase a word from a sentence and allowed people to fill in the blank with words and come up with different
endings.
Tipp-Ex is ran “Hunter and Bear's 2012 Birthday Party,” a sequel to the 2010 Shoot The Bear Youtube campaign. Partying away at the Bear’s birthday bash in 2012, the Hunter and his furry friend are faced with an earth-destroying meteor in the sky above them.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eQtai7HMb
Girls' Generation SHAKE rewards the user with cards when a game is completed. These cards can be collected and include unreleased pictures of Girls' Generation, or they can be used in games like an item and users can earn higher scores.
https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=c om.dooub.shake.ggshake
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9.Photoshop
Points are awarded for the completion of each mission, passing quizzes, reading the help articles, and winning virtual award badges, and social sharing, when available.
At Recycle Bank, you earn points for everyday
“green” actions such as learning how to use less water or making greener purchases. Users can then users these points to get rewards.
https://www.recyclebank.com/
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11.Yahoo Fantasy Basketball
Create or join a NBA league and manage your team with FREE live scoring, stats, scouting reports, news, and expert advice.
http://basketball.fantasysports.yahoo.com/
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12.Expedia Tag Me If You Can
“Tag Me If You Can” is an globally online interactive geo-game. Participants who have to sign up first and then tag the location based on the short video clues given by a guy within 10 meters
http://www.expedia.com.au/p/tagme
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Table 1. Description of the Studied Game Programs
13.LexusDraw Something Game
Lexus is looking to connect with a younger audience by running mobile ad integration in Zynga’s popular Draw Something game.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4ZZ4lgEvy M8
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14.Foursquar e
Foursquare is a location-based social
networking Website for mobile devices, such as smartphones. Users "check in" at venues using a mobile website, text messaging, or a device-specific application by selecting from a list of venues the application locates nearby.
Each check-in awards the user points and badges.
https://foursquare.com/
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15.Shopkick
Shopkick is a shopping app for mobile devices that offers customers rewards for walking into participating stores. It uses points called
“kicks.”
http://www.shopkick.com/
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16.Vodafone
Catch “Buffer Monsters” and drop them off at retail locations using a 2D barcode to receive discounts and other rewards.
In 2010, Mini Cooper combined a location-based sensor, AR, and social network sites to develop an app on smartphone to challenge people for searching a virtual Mini Cooper in the city of Stockholm.
Mini Cooper developed the first multiplayer 3D console-quality race game for Facebook, based upon the MINI John Cooper Works. The game is on the recently re-launched Facebook page for Germany.
http://www.miniusa.com/crm/racinggame.jsp
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19.Harry Potter
Users can explore a list of all the top cheats and step-by-step walk-through guides until they arrive at the right place.
http://www.pottermore.com/
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20.Ribbon Hero 2
The game is available as a free download and serves to educate users of Microsoft Word, Excel, PowerPoint, and OneNote in Microsoft Office 2007 and 2010 how to use the ribbon interface. It is a sequel to Ribbon Hero.
http://www.ribbonhero.com/
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Based on the previous corresponding investigations, because gaming-related customers are mainly online customers, they have more shopping outlets than ever with available technology and less time to think about a purchase. Therefore, understanding impulsive buying habits and planned buying habits is important for retailers to utilize the available resources and increase sales. In early studies, the classification of a purchase as “planned” or “impulse” began with the Stern (1962) study in which the author provided the basic framework of impulse buying by categorizing a behavior as planned, unplanned, or impulse. Planned purchases involved time consumption and an information search combined with rational decision making, whereas unplanned buying referred to all shopping decisions made without any advance planning.
However, impulse buying is distinguished from unplanned buying in terms of quick decision making. In addition to being unplanned, an impulse purchase also involves experiencing a sudden, strong, and irresistible urge to buy.
The research on planned purchases remains scarce, and previous studies have mainly concentrated on the anteceding factors of planned purchase. Planned-purchase buyers may have more extensive evaluative criteria and information needs than impulsive buyers. Cobb and Hoyer (1986) found that store factors have a limited influence on planned purchasers whereas in-store factors play a significant influence on impulse purchasers. Moreover, Bucklin and Lattin (1991) found that there is a significant relationship between consumer-purchase behavior and if those consumers have purchase plans in advance.
Previous research of impulse purchase focuses mainly on characteristics and predicting factors. In terms of researches on the characteristics of impulse purchase, previous studies have found that product category has a large impact and that impulse purchase is extremely high in some product categories; for example, for fashion and jewelry products, up to 62% consumer purchases are impulse purchases whereas in other category such as pharmaceutical products, there is a low-impulse purchase ratio. In terms of anteceding factors of impulse purchase, researchers have undertaken extensive research. Stern (1962) concludes that these factors which determined impulse purchase such as low prices, the potential demand for the product, large-scale distribution, self-service, large-large-scale advertising, in store display, short life cycle, small package size and easy storage, etc. Beatty and Elizabeth Ferrell (1998) found that impulse purchase comes from situational factors (abundant time or money) and individual factors (pleasure of shopping and the intention of impulse purchase) by building a structural-equation
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model. Recent studies have shown that impulse purchase was influenced by consumer sentiment (Beatty and Elizabeth Ferrell, 1998), personality (Donovan, Rossiter, Marcoolyn, and Nesdale, 1994), and demographic factors (Rook and Fisher, 1995).
Case Selected
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Table 2. Analysis of Game Design of Selected Studies
In categorizing the different types of consumers in attitude and preference for buying, Rook and Fisher (1995) demonstrated that the impulsive-buying trait was significantly related to impulsive-buying behavior, but they did not test its moderating effect. Thus, the current research attempts to add to the existing literature on impulsive buying and planned buying as well as the moderating role of buying impulsiveness and non-impulsiveness.
Combining findings from the game-program analyses and literature regarding different types of online consumers, one can see that individuals attach different levels of importance onto product attributes, consumption preferences, and the opinions of others. This results in significant differences in the experiences of game activities.
H8. The impact of different game design on consumer-purchase intention is affected by different
types of consumers.2.5 Demographics
In order to fully understand consumers’ attitudes to engage in online buying, demographic factors also have to be taken into account. There are different factors among online users : age, gender, education, and income (Burke, 2002). Age differences indicate that younger people are more interested in searching for non-specific product information, and comparing and evaluating alternatives with new technologies, such as a mobile phone (Wood, 2002). Elderly consumers have a greater preference for product-detail explanation, usage instructions, usage experience, and other product-specific functions. Gender is related to the purchase decision and has always been academically applied to many product categories (Dholakia, 1999; Hawfield and Lyons, 1998). Women have a more favorable opinion of product price, promotions, or coupons than men.
Compared with female consumers, men preferred to shop with the assistance of various technologies. The next factor of interest was income. Consumers with higher incomes ($60,000/year, or above) had a greater willingness to purchase than those with lower incomes. In cooper
3D-Race Game (2011) 19.Harry
Potter V V V V V
20.Ribbon
Hero 2 V
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addition, higher-income consumers preferred credit cards over debit cards, while lower-income consumers showed otherwise. Educational background has a positive relationship with an individual’s level of Internet literacy (Li et al., 1999). For example, higher-educated consumers had a greater tendency to shop on the Internet compared with lower-educated consumer.
This study assumed that education and income are significant factors that affect online-buying behavior. One reason may be that higher household incomes are often positively correlated with the possession of computers, access to the Internet, and higher education levels (Lohse, Bellman and Johnson, 2000).
H9. Different types of consumers have significant differences in demographic variables.
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CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY
3.1 Research Framework
The paper describes a study to develop a better understanding of game-design elements that potentially influence a consumer's intention to buy extension products while participating in a game activity. It also combines game-design elements with demographics to establish a conceptual framework in which to explore purchase intentions of consumers of different types.
Differences in demographics (such as age, income, etc.), and game-design elements (such as fantasy, coping, escape, etc.) are examined in Fig. 1. In addition, because Liebermann and Stashevsky (2009) have pointed out that the demographic variables on consumers may influence their purchase behavior, this study uses age and income as control variables in the theory of planned behavior model.
Figure 1. Constructs Definition and Sources of Measurement 3.2 Prototype Design and Data Collection
To test the conceptual framework, data were collected with a survey instrument that uses multi-item scales to measure all research constructs (see Table 3 for construct definitions and
To test the conceptual framework, data were collected with a survey instrument that uses multi-item scales to measure all research constructs (see Table 3 for construct definitions and