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154 M.R. Hashemi and M. Lewis
modeling system is based on the finite element/volume method. TELEMAC has a spectral wave module TOMAWAC (TELEMAC-based Operational Model Address-ing Wave Action Computation) that is coupled with a hydrodynamic module (Vil-laret et al.2013; Brown and Davies2009). Another popular unstructured model is FVCOM (Finite-Volume Community Ocean Model), which in particular, has been used for tidal energy assessment in the Gulf of Maine and Bay of Fundy (Chen et al.
2011; Karsten et al.2008). FVCOM also has been coupled with SWAN (Qi et al.
2009). A number of commercial models have been also used by the industry, and they can incorporate the interactions of waves and tides. MIKE, developed by the Danish Hydraulic Institute, has been used for resource assessment studies of several sites (e.g., Carr et al.2016; Kramer and Piggott2016), and it can simulate some of the wave-current interaction processes (Sabatino et al.2015). The MIKE model has a user-friendly interface that is attractive especially for commercial purposes.
Limitations, and previous skill assessments of each modeling suite should be considered. Generally, within each model, a user can apply a wide range of sim-plifications while setting up a model. For instance, a user can choose a uniform (or nonuniform) friction over the entire domain. Two-dimensional (instead of three-dimensional) simulation is another example to simplify a model. These simplifica-tions can lead to unrealistic/inaccurate results. Model resolution is a critical factor that controls the performance of a model for a specific region. Furthermore, many processes have been parameterized in ocean models, and can not be resolved in com-mon resolutions of these models (e.g., turbulence). Therefore, concurrent collection of wave and tide data at a site is essential to validate a coupled model. Simplified analytical methods, can help to interpret the results of these models.
Conclusions
The significance of wave-tide interaction in characterizing the energy resource of marine renewable energy projects is site specific. At a potential wave energy site, where tidal currents are strong, the effect of tides on wave properties such as wave height or wave period can be directly observed by analysis (e.g., FFT) of the mea-sured signals. Unlike tides, waves have a random nature, so many different scenar-ios of wave-tide interaction can occur: waves can oppose or follow the currents;
waves can be inline or oblique to the major axis of tidal currents. Therefore, it is important to understand how wave properties are affected by tides, in order to gener-alize the resource assessment results. Simplified analytical techniques help to under-stand these processes, and perform initial estimations. Advanced coupled wave-tide models can incorporate many wave-tide interaction processes; however, due to the scarcity of observational data (i.e., concurrent measurement of tides and waves), val-idation of wave-tide processes in these models is challenging.
At a potential tidal energy site that has a relatively strong wave climate, tidal cur-rents can be slowed down due to the enhanced bottom roughness and wave forces.
During extreme conditions tidal energy devices may go into a shut-down mode to
Wave-Tide Interactions in Ocean Renewable Energy 155
avoid damage, so the wave climate may have an effect on technical resource assess-ments. Finally, waves may also play an important role when planning for installation of devices and their maintenance. Therefore, the influence of waves on tidal energy schemes and wave-current interaction may have a significant effect at wave-exposed sites. Although few sites are considered to be wave exposed (such as some UK sites), if marine renewable energy is to make a substantial contribution to meeting carbon emission targets, and to be deployed throughout the world, the challenges associated with waves will need to be understood and overcome.
Acknowledgements M. Lewis wishes to acknowledge the support of the Ŝer Cymru National Research Network for Low Carbon, Energy and the Environment (NRN-LCEE) project QUO-TIENT, the SEACAMS research project (Sustainable Expansion of the Applied Coastal and Marine Sectors: Grant Number 80366), the Welsh Government, the Higher Education Funding Council for Wales, the Welsh European Funding Office, and the European Regional Development Fund Con-vergence Programme. Thanks to Simon Neill (Bangor University) and Philippe Gleizon (University of the Highlands and Islands) for providing the wave buoy data at Pentland Firth.
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