Establishing The Coding System

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Table 4-3: The conditons and results of participants.

Gender Use PAN Pictures Num Words Num Time

Participant 1 F

11 1254 1h52mins

Participant 2 F

V 11 1375 1h44mins

Participant 3 M

V 0 669+516(ideas)=

1185

1h33mins

Participant 4 M

V 14 1176 1h

4.3 Establishing The Coding System

Since creativity is demonstrated in the process of problem solving, it is important to analyze the process of how a participant creates a story. It is difficult to directly compare the story contents due to the narrative abilities of the participants may be different. Therefore, we use the research method of content analysis to analyze the process of story creation.

For the encoding system, researchers have published several models of design process. Chen (2002) took the operation of the computer into consideration, and developed Purcell and Gero’s model (1998) into four categories of fields: conceptual, operational, perceptual, and evaluation, as a means to analyze the cognitive process of using computer media. To establish the sub-category, we recorded the behaviors of the people who wrote the CLOSAT cards. Through the observation of their processes, we found that the behaviors include seeing, associating, recalling, evaluating, producing, writing, revising, scaling, and dragging when they were writing with the PAN system. We adopt Chen’s structure to map out the behaviors we have observed and established our coding schemes as shown in Table 4-4.

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The conceptual field represents the category of behaviors observed when the user generates new ideas or recalls an element. There are four sub-categories: Pt, Dp, Rp and Rt in this field.

The operational field is used to represent user’s operations on the system and actions. These system operations include Dr, Sca, W, and Re while the user’s actions include seeing a specific picture or text card in the system (Sp, and St). The user may be attracted by a picture or text card because the picture’s features or the text. Therefore, we use the attributes of CLOSAT as the subcategories of the perceptual field. When the user makes a description of a picture, a text card, his/her thinking, or the system, the behavior is considered as an evaluation. Therefore, we have designed four sub-categories in the evaluation field: Ep, Etxt, Et and Es.

Table 4-4: Coding system for the main experiment.

Category Sub-category Definition

Conceptual Pt Producing a thinking.

Rp Recalling a picture.

Rt Recalling a thinking.

Operational Sp Seeing a picture.

St Seeing a text card.

Dr Dragging an element to another frame.

Sca Scaling an element by moving the mouse.

W Writing the story.

Re Revise the story.

Perceptual C Associating a character.

L Associating a location.

O Associating an object.

S Associating a situation.

A Associating an action.

T Associating a theme.

Evaluation Ep Evaluating a picture.

Etxt Evaluating a text.

Et Evaluating a thinking.

Es Evaluating the system.

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CHAPTER 5 Analysis and Discussion

By comparing the participants’ processes of creating a story, we found that different users use the PAN system in different ways. Table 5-1 indicates the different conditions and observed behaviors or facts in the experiments by the four participants. Participant 1 did not use the PAN system or the CLOSAT cards, and simply she told a story from pictures and viewed with regular picture viewing tools: utilizing pictures and associate them to tell a story. Participant 4 used our system but he did not use the CLOSAT cards because he did not want to be affected by other people’s thinking. The way that participant 4 created a story is by viewing from pictures, like participant 1 did.

Table 5-1: The difference between participants.

P1 P2 P3 P4

With System

V V V

Producing ideas related to story by pictures

V V V

Producing ideas related to story by CLOSAT cards

V

Story is related to pictures.

V V

Participant 2 read the CLOSAT cards and browsed pictures, but she tended not to use them to generate story elements. She wrote her story almost from her imagination. Participant 3 also

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made use of the elements to find new ideas for the story. But both of their stories do not directly relate to the theme of these pictures.

From the observation of the similarity of how participant 1 and 4 created a story, we used the coding system in Section 4.3 to code participants 1 and 4 in the process of creating a story.

The following parts of this study will focus on analyzing participants 1 and 4. A part of participant 3’s protocol was also analyzed because we would like to know the effect of CLOSAT. Participant 4 is considered a special case because she did not need any help when she was writing the story.

5.1 Participant 1’s Process of Creating a Story

Participant 1 did not use the PAN system, and her story was dierctly related with pictures. Fig.5-1 indicates the whole process of creating. The x-axis is the time and the y-axis represents the COPE category. In the beginning of the porcess, participant 1 took a glance at all the pictures and tried to find interesting and colorful elements in the pictures (Fig.5-2.), and hence operational and perceptual fileds happened very often. Then she reviewed all the pictures and started to think which pictures she would like to use and how to develop the story (Fig.5-3.), the perceptual and evaluation fields followed after the operational field. It is because that after the participant saw the pictures (O:Sp), she might be attracted by the character in the picture (P), and evaluate it (E). Then she draged pictures (O:Dr) she likes from Finder to Word and produced ideas about background and characters (C:Pt).

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After choosing pictures, she tried to scale down the pictures because the pictures’ sizes in Mircrosoft Word were too large. She wanted to scale them down so it could be easier to scroll the panel in Microsoft Word and see the pictures (Fig.5-4.). During the process of scaling (O:Sca), she wanted to scale down the picture to a specific size (C:Pt), and then she evaluated the picture’s size again (E:Ep). The perceptual field happened here because when she was scaling down the picture, she was attracted by the picture again. Then she started to write her story, tried to find a new sentence, not “once upon a time” as a beginning, and started the story. We can see from Fig.5-5. that the participant evaluated her thinking (E:Et) and wrote (O:W) or revised (O:Re) her story alternately.

Sometimes the participant browsed all the pictures to look for more elements or looked into a specific picture for more details (Fig.5-6.). This phase is similar to another one when the participant was tring to find elements in the beginning. However, the operational filed happened less often because the participant drag fewer pictures (O:Dr). After the story was completed, she draged the pictures into Word and put them below the related texts, as shown in Fig.5-7. The participant evaluated a picture (E:Ep) and dragged (O:Dr) it into Word to represent her story, so the evaulate and operational field also showed alternately.

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Fig.5-1: Participant 1’s whole process of creating.

Fig.5-2: Participant 1 was browsing the pictures in the beginning of the process.

C:Pt   E:Ep   O:Sp   O:Sp   O:Sp   O:Sp   O:Sp   P:O   O:Sp   O:Sp   O:Sp   P:O   O:Sp   P:C   O:Sp   P:O   O:Sp   P:L   O:Sp   O:Sp   P:C   O:Sp   O:Sp   P:L   O:Sp   O:Sp   P:C   P:O   O:Sp   P:C   P:O   O:Sp   P:L   O:Sp   P:S   O:Sp   P:C   P:O   O:Sp   P:O   O:Sp   O:Sp   P:S   O:Sp   O:Sp   P:O   O:Sp   O:Sp   P:O   O:Sp  

C O P E

C O P E

C

O

P

E

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Fig.5-3: Participant 1 was seeing, dragging pictures and producing ideas for the story after browsing all pictures.

Fig.5-4: Participant 1 was scaling down the chosen pictures in Microsoft Word.

C:Pt   O:Sp   O:Sp   O:Sp   P:O   C:Pt   E:Et   C:Pt   E:Et   O:Dr   C:Pt   C:Rt   C:Pt   O:Sp   E:Ep   P:O   C:Pt   O:Dr   E:Ep   O:Sp   P:O   C:Rp   E:Ep   O:Sp   P:O   E:Ep   C:Pt   O:Dr   E:Es   O:Sp   O:Sp   P:O   C:Pt   O:Dr   O:Sp   P:C  

C:Rp  

P:C   O:Sp   O:Sp   E:Ep   P:C   C:Rp   C:Pt  

P:C   E:Ep   C:Rp   C:Pt   O:Sp   P:C   E:Ep   C:Pt   O:Sp   O:Sp   P:O   C:Pt   E:Ep   O:Dr   O:Sp   P:L   C:Pt   O:Dr   O:Sp   E:Ep   P:C   E:Et   C:Pt   O:Sp   P:C   C:Pt   O:Dr   O:Sp   P:C   C:Pt   O:Dr  

C:Pt   E:Ep   C:Pt   O:Sca   E:Es   O:Sca   C:Pt

  E:Es   C:Pt   E:Et   E:Ep   E:Es   C:Pt   E:Ep   C:Pt   O:Sca   E:Es   E:Et   C:Pt   E:Es   E:Ep   C:Pt   E:Et   C:Pt   E:Et   E:Es   E:Ep   C:Pt   O:Sp   E:Ep   P:C   P:O   P:L   E:Et   C:Pt   E:Et   E:Ep   E:Es   C:Pt   O:Sca   E:Ep   E:Et   C:Pt  

C

O

P

E

C

O

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Fig.5-5: The beginning of writing. (many operations of writing.)

O:W   C:Rp   C:Pt   E:Et   O:Re   E:Et   O:W   E:Et   O:Re   E:Et   C:Pt   O:W   E:Et   C:Pt   O:W   E:Et  

C

O

P

E

C

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Fig.5-7: Participant 1 was dragging pictures into Microsoft Word to represent her story.

5.2 Participant 4’s Process of Creating a Story

Participant 4 used the PAN system, and the pictures he chose were also directly related to his story. The process taken by participant 4 is shown in Fig.5-8. He began with searching and overviewing the pictures (Fig.5-9); the operation and evaluation fields took a big part in this phase. Fig.5-10 shows that after taking a glance at all the pictures, participant 4 picked some pictures he thought useful in his story, and put it in the My Folder panel. In the following writing process, he started to use these selected pictures, saw one of them (O:Sp), evaluated it (E:Ep), generated an idea (C:Pt), dragged it into Writing Panel (O:Dr), and then started to write (O:W).

And every time when he wrote for a while and wanted to find a new idea, he would repeat the above actions in the green rectangles in Fig. 5-8.

O:Dr  E:Ep  O:Dr  E:Ep  O:Dr  E:Ep  O:Dr  E:Ep  O:Dr  E:Ep  O:Dr  E:Ep  O:Dr  E:Ep  O:Dr  E:Ep  O:Dr  E:Ep  O:Dr  E:Ep  

C

O

P

E

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Fig.5-8: Participant 4’s whole process of creativity.

Fig.5-9: Participant 4 was browsing the pictures in the beginning of the process.

C:Pt   E:Es   O:Sp   E:Ep   C:Pt   E:Es   C:Pt   E:Ep   E:Ep   O:Sp   E:Ep   C:Pt   C:Pt   O:Sp   E:Ep   P:C   E:Et   E:Et   P:A   O:Dr   E:Es   O:Sp   E:Et   C:Pt   E:Et   E:Et   O:Sp   C:Pt   E:Ep   P:L   E:Ep   P:C   E:Ep   O:Sp   P:C   E:Et  

C O P E

C

O

P

E

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Fig.5-10: The process of participant 4 of finding, dragging elements and writing.

5.3 Process of Creating a Story with Pictures

Participant 1 and participant 4 have the same conditions except for using the PAN system or not.

Taking a look at their creation process, we can find that the two participants have the same pattern as shown in Fig.5-11. Both of them overviewed all the pictures in the beginning, started to search for pictures that they would like to use, and then thought how to use them to develop their stories. When they had difficulties in developing their stories, they usually went back to find more pictures, thought over and then wrote more.

P:C   C:Pt

  E:Et   E:Et   C:Pt   E:Et   C:Pt   E:Ep   C:Pt   O:Dr   O:W   E:Et   O:Sp   E:Ep   C:Pt   O:Dr   O:Dr   E:Ep   C:Pt   O:W   E:Et   C:Pt   O:Dr   O:W   E:Ep   C:Rt   C:Pt   O:Sp   E:Ep   C:Pt   O:W   E:Ep   C:Pt   E:Et   C:Pt   O:Dr   E:Es   O:Dr   C:Pt   O:W   E:Et   E:Ep   O:Dr   O:Sp   E:Ep   O:Dr   O:W   E:Et   C:Pt   O:Dr   O:Dr   O:Sp   E:Es   O:Dr   E:Es   O:W   C:Pt  

C

O

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Fig.5-11: The process of creating a story.

5.4 Finding Appropriate Pictures for Using

We were interesting in what happened when a participant saw a picture that s/he wanted to use.

Therefore, we used seeing a picture (O:Sp) as a beginning to trace the analyzed data. We have found some patterns for this phase, and in the following sections we will explain these patterns in more details.

5.4.1 General Pattern of Seeing a Picture

The two participants are common in trying to find pictures they wanted to use in the story. That is, they intended to find story elements by viewing the pictures. Fig.5-12 indicates how the participants seeing a picture.

Browsing pictures

Finding pictures for

use

Thinking how to use the pictures

Writing

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Fig.5-12: The participants’ processes of finding appropriate pictures.

When the participants wanted to find pictures for using, they started from seeing a picture (O:Sp); they were attracted by the features of the picture such as a castle (P), and then evaluated it (E:Ep). On the other hand, after seeing a picture, the participants expressed their feeling of the picture at first (E:Ep), and then attracted by its features (P). Then, the participants produced a thinking of it (C:Pt) such as deciding to use it. They then evaluated if it was appropriate to use the picture (E:Et). If they decided to use the picture (C:Pt), they would drag it to Microsoft Word or My Folder (O:Dr). The dotted line indicates that participant 4 dragged the picture into My Folder directly after he evaluated the picture because he would like to review it later.

5.4.2 Recalling a Picture

During the process of creating a story, the participants may recall some pictures that they saw earlier when they were looking for pictures (Fig.5-13). For example, when participant 1 was attracted by a feature of a picture (P), the feature made her recall another picture (C:Rp), then she started to produce a thinking and evaluate it for appropriateness (C:Pt, E:Et).

O:Sp

P

E:Ep

C:Pt E:Et O:Dr

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“The picture has a mouse in it (P:O), and another picture has it, too (C:Rp). Therefore, I was wondering if I should use it or not. (C:Pt, E:Et).” (Protocol of Participant 1, 00:20:43).

Fig.5-13: Participant 1’s process of recalling a picture.

In contrast, participant 4 has another pattern when recalling a picture (Fig.5-14). When he saw a picture (O:Sp), he thought of another picture that he had seen before (C:Rp) because of their similarity. After retrieving the other picture, he was attracted by the content (P). Then he produced thinking and evaluated it to see if he should use the picture or not (C:Pt, E:Et).

Alternatively, after evaluating the features in the picture (E:Ep), he may think that the features were not useful and then decided to see other pictures.

“I felt this picture was like another picture I had seen (C:Rp). It looked like that there was a conversation (P:A). So I was thinking of whether to use the picture or not. But at this time I did not make a decision.(C:Pt, E:Et)” (Protocol of Participant 4, 00:11:05).

“This picture was like another one (C:Rp). Someone was in a space, and did something. Here there was a king, and he was asking something from him (P). At the end, I think it was not useful

O:Sp P C:Rp C:Pt E:Et

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Fig.5-14: Participant 4’s process of recalling a picture.

The difference between participant 1 and 4 is that the Perceptual (P) and Recalling Picture (C:Rp) fields are in different positions. Participant 1 used the features of pictures to link another pictures while participant 4 just expressed the feeling that this picture was similar to another one. For participant 1, when she saw a picture, she utilized the features of the picture to recall another picture that has the similar features and thoughts, so the Perceptual field is before the Recalling Picture (C:Rp) field. But, for participant 4, he recalled a picture because he felt the picture was like another one. However, he did not indicate where or what was similar. He focused on describing the content of the picture he was seeing.

5.5 Deciding to Use a Picture

When the participants would like to use pictures to develop their story, they may have different behaviors. Because participant 1 had a trouble of scrolling the panel in Microsoft Word, she chose not to drag any picture into the panel. The result is that every time when she decided to use a picture, she had to recollect the specific picture from her memory; therefore, recalling a picture became the first action of this phase. Fig.5-15 shows participant 1’s process of recalling a picture

O:Sp C:Rp P C:Pt E:Et

E:Ep

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she would like to use, recalling (C:Rp) the features of the picture (P), and evaluating the picture again (E:Ep). Then she produced a thinking (C:Pt) to let her continue her story (O:W).

“There was a picture in my memory (C:Rp). There was a girl on the tower, and she wore a red dress (P). Because she was on the tower (E:Ep), I felt she was looking the other side (of the river) since there were some sounds (C:Pt). Therefore, I wrote…. (O:W).” (Protocol of Participant 1, 00:54:06).

Fig.5-15: Participant 1’s process of deciding to use a picture.

Since participant 4 has no such problem like participant 1, it is obvious that he dragged the picture when he decided to use it. Fig. 5-16 shows his process in this phase. When participant 4 was deciding to use a picture, he always dragged the picture he would like to use to the Writing Story panel (O:Dr), and evaluated the chosen picture (E:Ep) in the My Folder Panel. Then he found an idea (C:Pt) for his story and wrote it down (O:W). After he finished writing the idea, he usually evaluated the picture (E:Ep) again. He was often attracted by another feature in the picture (P) and started to think how to use it (E:Et). Finally he found a solution (C:Pt).

C:Rp P E:Ep C:Pt O:W

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Fig.5-16: Participant 4’s process of deciding to use a picture.

5.6 With and Without the PAN System

We have depicted the details of the participants’ writing processes, compared and explained the observations in the previous subsections. Following we will discuss their differences based on the statistic data that we have collected in Table 6.2 for participants 1 and 4. By taking a close look at the percentages of COPE, we can find that there are significant differences between the two participants in recalling a picture (C:Rp), seeing a picture (O:Sp), dragging an element (O:Dr), scaling a picture (O:Sca), evaluating a picture (E:Ep) and evaluating a thinking (E:Et).

The situation is due to the fact that participant 1 had some problem for scaling down the pictures. She tried many times to scale down the pictures, and participant 4 with the PAN system had no such a problem. Therefore, participant 1 has a higher percentage of scaling (O:Sca) than participant 4. Due to this difficulty, participant 1 was not willing to drag pictures to Microsoft Word while participant 4 liked to drag pictures to My Folder for later uses (O:Dr).

When the participants wanted to use a picture, participant 1 would recall the picture she

O:Dr C:Pt O:W

E E

P E C:Pt

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observed from the fact that the participant has higher percentage of recalling the picture (C:Rp) and lower percentage of seeing the picture (O:Sp) than participant 4.

Since participant 1 had to recall a picture, she used the features of the picture as a clue.

Therefore the percentage of perceptual filed (P) for her is higher. And because participant 1 could not see pictures when she was writing, the evaluation of picture became less. She also tried to develop her story by herself, so the percentage of evaluating picture (E:Ep) is lower and the evaluating thinking (E:Et) is higher.

Table 5-2: The statistics of coding of participant 1 and 4.

Category Sub-category

Participant 1 Participant 1

(%)

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5.7 The Use of CLOSAT

We also want to investigate the effect of CLOSAT cards. Since participant 3 has generated many ideas from CLOSAT cards, therefore, we analyze how the CLOSAT cards have helped participant 3 find elements of his story. Participant 3’s process of creating was a bit different from participants 1 and 4. For participant 1 and 4, during the process of writing, when they wanted to find new elements, they usually browsed the pictures again. But participant 3 found elements by the CLOSAT cards in the beginning. He read, associated ideas, and wrote down their CLOSAT attributes. After ideas were found, he started to use these ideas to develop his story and did not use the exploration panel any more. In order to know his process of finding elements, we coded participant 3’s protocol of finding elements (Fig.5-17).

Fig.5-17: Participant 3’s process of finding elements.

C:Pt   O:W   E:Et   C:Pt   O:Sp   O:Sp   O:St   P:O   P:S  

E:Etext   O:Sp   O:St   E:Etext   E:

Et   C:Pt   C:Rt   C:Pt   O:W   O:St   O:St   E:Es   O:Sp   P:C   E:Ep   O:St   E:Etext   O:Sp   O:St   E:Etext   O:Sp   O:St   E:Etext   E:Es   O:Sp   E:Ep   O:St   O:Sp   O:St   P:C   E:Et   E:Es   O:Sp   E:Etext   O:Sp   C:Pt   E:Et   O:W   C:Rt   E:Et   C:Rtext   C:Pt   O:W   C:Rt   E:Et   C:Pt   O:W   C:Pt   O:W   E:Et   C:Pt   E:Et   O:W   C:Pt   C:Pt   O:W   O:Sp   O:St   E:Ep   O:Sca   O:St   C:Rt   C:Pt   O:W   C:Rt   E:Et   C:Pt   O:W   O:Sp   O:St   O:Sp   O:St   O:Sp   P:T   E:Etext   O:Sp   O:St  

P:O   C:Rt   C:Pt   O:W  

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Fig.5-18: The process of finding the element.

Participant 3 liked to use the CLOSAT cards to find new elements as participant 1 and 4 did. He was attracted by the features (P) of the picture, and then evaluate it (E:Ep). He even read the CLOSAT cards (O:St) to think. He would also see the CLOSAT cards, and then evaluate the text (E:Etext). Sometimes when he read the CLOSAT cards (O:St), he evaluated his story (E:Et) and recalled a text card (C:Rtext). The text in the card may make him recall another films or stories (C:Rt). Finally, he found a new element (C:Pt) and wrote it down (O:W).

O:Sp

P

O:St

E:Ep

E:Etext

C:Rt

C:Pt

O:W

E:Et C:Rtext

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5.8 Augmented writing process

By observing participant 1, 3, and 4, we found that there were browsing, finding, thinking and writing actions in the creation process. We augment Flower’s (Flower & Hayes, 1981) writing model as shown in Fig.5-19. After browsing the elements, the user started to find elements for using. At this time, these elements were like cues to help the user explore and recall his/her long-term memory. Then when the user started to think how to use the element, it was the time that s/he generated, organized and set his/her goal for writing. The writing here is more general than Flower’s pattern; therefore, the task environment and a part of the writing process are in the writing filed.

5.9 Seeing-imaging-writing

McKim (1980) said that seeing, imaging, and drawing are interactive. We observed the particiants’ creation process and found the participants had the same behaviors with McKim’s theory. But what the participants did was writing instead of drawing. The exploration can be categorized into seeing and generalized thinking that includes conceptual, perceptual, and evaluation fields as well as the recalling behavior.

For seeing-imaging, the participants explored/saw an element and generated ideas. They evaluated their thinking and then explored/saw elements for new ideas. Imaging-writing can be found when the participant recalled and evaluated her thinking and can stimulate the participant’s imagination to develop story. A situation for seeing-writing is that the participants read their story sections and revise the sentences when they was writing. This can be found in the

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