Chapter 2. Literature Review
2.1 Faculty-librarian collaboration
2.1.1 What is collaboration?
The term ―collaboration‖ is frequently used synonymously with words, such as cooperation, coordination, coalition, network, alliance, partnership, and bridge (Huxham, 1996). Unlike other words, however, collaboration refers to a more pervasive, long-term relationship in which participants recognize common goals and objectives, share more tasks, and participate in extensive planning and implementation (Raspa & Ward, 2000). Rosen
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(2007) believed that collaboration creates greater value than do the traditional structures of communication and teamwork.
Wagner (1998) defined, ―collaboration is a process of action in which everyone works to understand the problem, engage in discussion to reach agreement on the goal, and shares responsibility for implementing change, assessing progress, and achieving results (p. 517).‖
In organizational studies, collaboration means various relationships between individuals and social groups striving for a common goal. Collaboration can also be considered as a management instrument that is beneficial within the framework of partnership-based collaboration (Kozuch, 2009). Collins (2013) summarized several scholars‘ definitions and stated that collaboration means working together efficiently and effectively towards higher organizational performance such as improved products, processes, and services. Cook (2000) proposed that collaboration comprises three basic components: (1) collaboration‘s purpose is to achieve common goals; (2) collaboration is supported by a well-designed structure; and (3) collaboration is mutually beneficial. Essentially, collaboration is a way of working together for the purpose of contributing to the common good (Southern, 2005).
Collaboration may be divided into formal and informal varieties. On an informal, more personal level, people may undertake a collaborative activity with a friend or colleague who has a similar interest. On a formal, organizational level, a collaborative activity may be created by or between departments, colleges, or institutions (Raspa & Ward, 2000).
2.1.2 Elements of faculty-librarian collaboration
Regarding faculty-librarian collaboration, in the case of either formal or informal collaboration, five fundamental qualities are required for collaboration to occur, which are known as the ―Five Ps of Collaboration.‖ They are: (1) passion; (2) persistence; (3)
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playfulness; (4) promotion; and (5) project. ―Passion‖ means that librarians will be interested in collaborative efforts to develop powerful classroom experiences and instructional faculty may be interested in exploring active teaching methods with library resources. ―Persistence‖ means that librarians and faculty members will take advantage of every opportunity to promote collaboration. ―Playfulness‖ means that librarians and faculty members will be passionately engaged in the ―here and now‖, i.e., focused on the task that is right in front of them. In other words, a librarian or faculty member needs to open his or her heart to collaborate with someone new. ―Promotion‖ means that librarians and faculty members are willing to encourage institutions, departments, and individuals to undertake initiatives that enhance internal and external communication for collaboration. Finally,
―project‖ means that collaboration must revolve around a focus to which librarians and faculty members may contribute their ideas, energies, and skills (Raspa & Ward, 2000).
According to the definition of collaboration stated by Mattessich and Monsey (1992), Cook (2000) asserted that the collaboration between librarians and faculty members has three basic components: (1) collaboration‘s purpose is to achieve common goals; (2) collaboration is supported by a well-designed structure; and (3) collaboration is mutually beneficial.
In summary, several crucial elements are involved in collaborations between librarians and faculty members according to the aforementioned definitions and concepts. They are:
(1) collaborative relationship: this is the first step, in which both librarians and faculty members are willing to establish a formal or informal collaborative relationship; (2) common goal: understanding the reasons and objectives involved in a collaborative project is needed; (3) shared responsibility: clarifying the duties and tasks between librarians and faculty required for a collaborative project; (4) mutual benefit: both librarians and faculty
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can obtain benefits in a collaborative project; (5) collaborative process: collaboration must be a well-structured process of action for achieving a common goal; and (6) organizational performance: improving organizational effectiveness is the final goal (e.g., improvement of teaching and learning).
2.1.3 Reasons for developing faculty-librarian collaboration
Raspa and Ward (2000) mentioned that various trends push librarians towards a true collaborative relationship with faculty members. First, librarians do not have the subject expertise required in teaching in the disciplines. Second, with increased demands for instructional accountability, librarians are experiencing pressure to explore more effective methods for teaching and learning. Third, both librarians and faculty members will seek more personal satisfaction from their work; thus, they will look for rewards in various interpersonal processes of their work environment. The fourth trend is that more collaborative projects are needed for the reformation of higher education.
In light of the reformation of higher education, Jeffries (2000) proposed that librarians are on the edge of an information explosion and play a critical role in educating students and teachers about the effective utilization of technology in the electronic information age.
Caspers and Lenn (2000) assumed that changes in information technology and increasing pressures to achieve cost reduction have promoted the collaborative role of librarians in teaching and learning. Cook (2000) asserted that librarians have made a connection with members of the academic community to deal with the development of digital technology and information literacy education based on the result of a review of the literature.
Wijayasundara (2008) proposed that the emergence of life-long learning motivated the requirement for faculty-librarian collaboration.
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As a result, faculty members and librarians in higher education have to change the ways in which they teach and work because of enormous challenges and changes, such as the rapid development of information technology, cost reduction pressure, increased competition, teaching reformation, etc. Therefore, collaboration has become one of the most efficient methods for them to cope with rapid changes and stresses in higher education.
2.1.4 Methods for developing faculty-librarian collaborative relationship
Numerous scholars and experts in librarianship have agreed that the relationships between librarians and faculty members are often depicted as adversarial because there is something incongruent between their values and beliefs (Biggs, 1981; Hardesty, 1995;
Christiansen, Stombler, & Thaxton, 2004; Jenkins, 2005; Badke, 2005). In other words, faculty members and librarians have different cultures and they are unfamiliar with each other.
The library liaison program is a popular method for increasing the interaction and understanding between faculty members and librarians (Macaluso & Pertruzzlli, 2005). It gives faculty members a personal contact in the library and provides librarians with a new way to collaborate with faculty members in research and teaching (Carpan, 2011).
Therefore, some libraries create liaison librarians to strengthen the relationships with faculty members in different departments. As Oberg (1990) stated, ―The greater the faculty contact with the library, the higher the rank given librarians (p. 225).‖ Accordingly, the liaison service may be an appropriate approach for librarians to start an interpersonal relationship and build a communicating network with faculty members in every academic department. Nevertheless, a case study at Texas A&M University revealed that the liaison model does not reflect increased collaboration because liaison librarians are not viewed
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primarily as research consultants but instead as the first person to contact when faculty members experience library problems (Yang, 2000). According to Donham and Green (2004), they also emphasized that librarians need to progress from the passive liaison model to the proactive consulting model for collaborating with faculty members. This means that a successful liaison librarian has to proactively meet faculty members‘ specific needs for collaborative services instead of only serving as a contact person.
In the early 1990s, George Washington University created a position of Faculty Outreach Librarian (FOL). The primary role of the FOL was to educate faculty members on the growing role of information technology in research and teaching and to enhance their support for new electronic resources. The FOL at George Washington University must hold a doctoral degree and have experience in reference services. According to the experience of George Washington University, the FOL did help faculty members to view them as a peer (Jenkin, 2005). In fact, the function of the FOL is similar to the position of the liaison librarian and subject specialist in a library.
Raspa and Ward (2000) emphasized the importance of listening and communication in building collaborative relationships between librarians and faculty members. They assumed that it requires hearing the other completely, waiting before speaking, recreating in one‘s mind what was just said, and making sure that it was understood in collaboration.
According to the survey study of Jeffries (2000), 80% of faculty members preferred to receive an email for brief messages from librarians, with phone calls being a distant second.
In that study, Jeffries further suggested 10 tips for librarians to develop good collaborative relationships with faculty. They are: (1) be interested in faculty research; (2) be friendly; (3) be courteous and respectful; (4) be a promoter of new products, services, and acquisitions;
(5) be a personal librarian; (6) be willing to attend faculty meetings; (7) be committed; (8)
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be a good listener; (9) be responsive to student needs; and (10) be knowledgeable.
Understanding the complexities of faculty culture, such as traits, concerns, and attitudes of faculty, is essential for building collaborative relationships between librarians and faculty members. Biggs (1981) and Hardesty (1991, 1995) mentioned that librarians should possess a better understanding of the values and cultures of faculty for establishing collaborative relationships. Jenkins (2005) asserted that librarians must learn to understand faculty characteristics and concerns in order to work with them effectively and maintain a good relationship.
Phelps and Campbell (2011) have reviewed several relevant articles. They found that librarians and faculty members working together on student learning is the most frequently mentioned benefit of the faculty-librarian relationship. In addition, collaborating with faculty to teach information literacy is the best way for librarians to build a close relationship with faculty and raise their status in the academic community (Callison, Budny,
& Thomes, 2005; Parello, 2005).
In summary, building shared goals and values, having good communications, and establishing trust and commitment between librarians and faculty members are the most important antecedents to maintaining a long-term collaborative relationship for librarians and faculty members.
2.1.5 Models for implementing faculty-librarian collaboration
Partnering with faculty in new educational methodologies is one significant way in which librarians and faculty can work together to enhance student learning (Bennett &
Gilbert, 2009). Therefore, what types of collaborative models are typically adopted by librarians and faculty members to work together? Librarians particularly work together with
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faculty members to implement library instruction, conduct cooperative teaching classes, prepare teaching materials, design library assignments, compose research project proposals, prepare research presentations, organize workshops, design websites for specific courses, join school committee projects, develop library collections, etc. (Jeffries, 2000).
In the study of Gallegos and Wright (2000), 12 various collaborative projects between librarians and faculty members were surveyed in different universities in the United States, Australia, and Canada. They found that approximately 60% of the collaborative projects focused on library instruction and information literacy education. In addition, several special collaborative projects were explored in this survey study such as writing a book, developing a course workbook, and creating a course website that incorporated many kinds of learning resources.
In fact, many scholars agree that librarians cannot develop library instruction and information literacy education in isolation, and the relationships between librarians and faculty are crucial to the success or failure of library instruction and information literacy education (Hardesty, 1995; Farber, 1999; Raspa & Ward, 2000; Ivey, 2003; Ellison, 2004;
Kraat, 2005; Badke, 2005) It is evident that librarians working with faculty members to implement library instruction or information literacy education has become the most successful form of collaboration.
2.1.6 Success factors for conducting faculty-librarian collaboration
Wattessich, Murry-Close, and Monsey (2001) proposed 20 factors that influence the success of collaborations formed by nonprofit organizations and government agencies. The 20 factors are grouped into six categories as shown in Table 1.
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Table 1
Success factors of collaborations for nonprofit organizations and government agencies (Source: Wattessich, Murry-Close, & Monsey, 2001)
Categories Factors
1. Environment (1) History of collaboration or cooperation in the community
(2) Collaborative group seen as a legitimate leader in the community (3) Favorable political and social climate
2. Membership characteristics
(1) Mutual respect, understanding, and trust (2) Appropriate cross section of members
(3) Members see collaboration as in their self-interest (4) Ability to compromise
3. Process and structure
(1) Members share a stake in both process and outcome (2) Multiple layers of participation
(3) Flexibility
(4) Development of clear roles and policy guidelines (5) Adaptability
(6) Appropriate pace of development 4. Communication (1) Open and frequent communication
(2) Established informal relationships and communication links 5. Purpose (1) Concrete, attainable goals and objectives
(2) Shared vision (3) Unique purpose
6. Resources (1) Sufficient funds, staff, materials, and time (2) Skilled leadership
Regarding successful collaboration between librarians and faculty members, numerous experts in librarianship have proposed various ideas and suggestions. Building a good
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relationship is the first step in achieving effective collaboration (Jones, 2000;
Montiel-Overall, 2005). Raspa and Ward (2000) emphasized that the ―Five Ps‖ are critical to the pursuit of collaboration, including passion, persistence, playfulness, promotion, and project. Muronage and Harada (1999) asserted that successful collaboration is based on a shared vision, common goals, and a climate of trust and mutual respect. Major (1993) suggested that librarians need more self-confidence to make faculty members treat them as colleagues. In other words, the more librarians respect themselves, the better faculty members will respect them. Gallegos and Wright (2000) proposed four factors necessary for a successful collaborative project between librarians and faculty members in the process of collaboration. First, working relationships are based on issues of mutual concern. Second, they must be willing and able to propose a joint project and then to initiate a process of exploration. Third, the manner in which they work together is strongly influenced by particular preferences. Fourth, the process of working together requires discussion.
Wijayasundara (2008) proposed that the success of collaborative effort between faculty members and librarians depended on the size and the type of the university. He assumed that effective communication is possible in small institutions, as there are many channels of communication even on a personal basis. In addition, faculty-librarian collaborative efforts may produce better results in universities that are research-oriented.
Ivey‘s (2003) study demonstrated that the following four behaviors are essential factors for achieving a successful collaborative partnership: (1) a shared, understood goal;
(2) mutual respect, tolerance and trust; (3) competence for the task at hand by each of the partners; and (4) ongoing communication. In addition, in fostering a successful collaboration practice, the library needs to have adequate staffing. Doskastsch (2003) mentioned that ―institutional commitment‖ is proven to be one of the crucial factors to
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promote collaborative relationships for librarians and faculty. Furthermore, the institutional culture and the institutional value on collaboration can influence the development of collaboration between faculty and librarians in an institution, as Hardesty (1991) mentioned previously. In other words, if a university places a high value on the culture of collaboration between librarians and faculty members, a faculty-librarian collaborative project will be easier to establish in a university.
2.1.7 Difficulties in conducting faculty-librarian collaboration
According to the study of Manuel, Beck, and Molloy (2005), 21 faculty members at New Mexico State University were surveyed to determine why they use library instruction and what they value about it. The results showed that one of the worst experiences that the faculty members had with library instruction was a disconnection or miscommunication between themselves and the librarians. Furthermore, the situation of disconnection or miscommunication caused the failure of collaboration with librarians regarding library instruction. Therefore, building a positive working relationship and maintaining a qualitative communication between the teaching partners were identified as essential conditions for collaborative partnerships (Ivey, 2003).
In fact, working with others is frequently not easy. It can be difficult for different groups or organizations to collaborate with each other because different professional groups or organizations may have many dissimilarities in terms of aims, languages, procedures, cultures, and perceived power (Huxham, 1996). Beryerlein et al. (2003) also assumed that the difficulty of collaboration in today‘s organization was due to task complexity and uncertainty, the nature of the work environment, and the speed requirement created by unpredictable change. As a result, collaborations tend to require significant amounts of time to be spent communicating between different groups or organizations in reaching better
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understandings and agreements.
Regarding faculty-librarian collaboration for information literacy, Leckie and Fullerton (1999) pointed out that faculty‘s pedagogy seeks to protect their disciplines, preserve their academic freedom, and maintain control of the classroom, thus making it difficult for librarians to interfere with faculty-held territory. In fact, even when librarians have faculty status, faculty members do not typically consider librarians to be their academic equals, because faculty members more often value librarians for work at the reference desk, often described as service rather than teaching (Ivey, 1994). In addition, faculty‘s knowledge of librarianship and their experiences with using the library might influence the level of cooperativeness to collaborate with librarians for information literacy (Feldman &
Sciammarella, 2000; Hardesty, 1999). In other words, if a faculty member is less familiar with the library, he or she will be less interested in working with a librarian.
Christianse, Stombler, and Thaxton (2004) proposed that there is an asymmetrical disconnection that exists between librarians and faculty members. Although the two groups are both necessary to the successful functioning of any academic institution, they are generally separated. According to their observations, two frameworks may explain this disconnection. The first are organizational dimensions and issues, such as physical separation, cultural distinction, knowledge-literacy gap, unequal organizational power, different structure of work, etc. The second are status difference factors, such as different organizational function, professional degree, work-time expectation, pay and benefits, social relations on campus, etc.
In addition, a conceptual model of faculty-librarian collaboration was developed by Wijayasundara (2008), as shown in Fig. 1.
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Figure 1. A conceptual model of faculty-librarian collaboration (Wijayasundara, 2008)
The conceptual model summarized the causes of collaboration (i.e., personal traits, knowledge skills, and organizational facts) and the benefits of collaboration (i.e., teaching and learning, research, and usage of the library) between librarians and faculty. Numerous causative factors and benefit factors which can affect the nature of collaboration between librarians and faculty members are shown as Table 2.
Table 2
Cause and benefit factors of faculty-librarian collaboration (Source: Wijayasundara, 2008)
Cause factors Benefit factors
Personal traits
Positive attitudes toward collaboration Good relationship with team
Mutual respect Trust
Tolerance
Competence for the task
Teaching and learning Increased reflection Increased innovation Increased motivation Better support
Developing course syllabus Curricular revision
Team teaching Guest lecturing Personal traits
Knowledge and skills Organizational
facts
Teaching and learning Research
Usage of the library Faculty-librarian
Collaboration
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Developing assignments Knowledge and skills
Teaching techniques Technological skills Proactivity
Quantity of communication Quality of communication Listening
Research
Improved research skills Improved research strategies Research methodologies High quality literature reviews Publications
Conference presentations Grant writing
Organizational facts Understood goals Adequate staffing Size of university Infrastructure facilities
Usage of the library Increased resources Improved services
High quality products and services Web page design
Collection building
In summary, faculty-librarian collaboration has beneficial effects on enhancing teaching, learning, research, and the use of library services for the universities. In addition, it is understandable that the collaborations between librarians and faculty members can be influenced by various factors. However, the issue of ―culture‖ in relation to collaboration was not discussed in the study of Wijayasundara (2008). Therefore, it may be necessary for librarians and scholars in librarianship to study the topic of faculty-librarian collaborative culture in higher education institutions.
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