Traditionally, in school, we are taught to view society as stable and basically peaceful. In reality, our society is dynamic, and filled with tensions and contradictions. Such turmoil and contradictions are reflected in the experiences of youth life beyond the school walls. Increasingly, awareness of these tensions in social life is being reflected within the practices of the school, but the school continues to lag behind society. A civic curriculum oriented toward social change and the resolution of tensions
and conflicts is not “merely” more relevant and realistic to the students than is the conventional curriculum; to the extent that it corresponds more closely to the reality the student experiences beyond the realm of school, an issues-centered civic curriculum better equips the student to engage the dilemmas of public life as an effective democratic citizen.
Both the quantitative and qualitative analyses of data support previous research that Project Citizen
has positive impacts upon the civic development of Taiwanese senior high school students. The finding that Project Citizen enhanced senior high school students’ civic skills and dispositions suggests the positive implications of the issues-centered curriculum. For those civic educators who accept the assumption that teaching for informed and responsible participation should be the major goal of civic education, this research offers support for the hope that their goal is attainable. Further, this study suggests directions in which civic curriculum reform might move to promote the citizenship ideal.
An implication valuable for adopting Project Citizen in Taiwan follows from the findings that classroom climate and students’ exposure to news of various media resources are positively related to the effect of Project Citizen on the civic skills and dispositions of Taiwanese senior high school students.
This is not to suggest that these are the only factors that are related to Project Citizen’s effect, but rather to lend support to the findings of previous research studies. When students perceive their classroom to be an open environment, one in which students are encouraged to explore and express differing views related to public issues, civics instruction has a beneficial influence upon students’ civic skills and dispositions. This being the case, civic educators should examine classroom climate and instructional practices in an effort to identify those aspects that hold potential for incorporating the modes of inquiry and discourse suited to democratic life. In addition, when students are exposed to the news coverage from various media sources, they are able to examine diverse views concerning substantive public issues.
This, in turn, may have a favorable impact upon their
civic skills and dispositions. Implementing Project Citizen in the Taiwanese senior high school, this study’s findings suggest, can contribute significantly to this effort to more closely align the practices of the Civics classroom with the imperatives of civic life in a modern democratic society.
In addition to support for Project Citizen, an issues-centered curriculum, this study provides a basis for comparison of different cultures. By incorporating the perspectives of the participating teachers, this study points out the need to take into account the potential cultural variations in the adoption of curricular programs. The format and process of implementing Project Citizen as conducted in the United States, these teachers indicated, are not entirely applicable to the Taiwanese high school context. Although various studies have shown many positive impacts of Project Citizen on adolescent civic development, this does not mean that Project Citizen can be adopted without any difficulties in Taiwan. In fact, in addition to some challenges experienced universally in using Project Citizen (such as curriculum integration, topic selections, uncertainty of the implementation schedule of Project Citizen), Taiwan’s teachers encountered even more challenges when implementing Project Citizen: time constraints, students’ inadequate abilities, pressure from the JCEE, and limited resources available to the students. Some of these challenges may be unique to the Taiwanese context; at the very least, to ensure an effective adaptation of Project Citizen in Taiwan, the cultural contingencies involved in these factors should be taken into account.
References
Angell, A. V. (1990). Civic attitudes of Japanese middle school students: Results of a pilot study. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the National Council for the Social Studies. (Anaheim, CA, November 1990). (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 374 029).
Baughman, J. E. (1975). An investigation of the impact of civics on political attitudes of adolescents.
Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Maryland.
Beck, P. A. (1977). The role of agents in political socialization. In S. A. Renshon (Ed.), Handbook of political socialization (pp. 115-141). New York: The Free Press.
Blankenship, G. (1990). Classroom climate, global knowledge, global attitudes, political attitudes.
Theory and Research in Social Education, 18 (4), 363-384.
Brody, R. A. (1994). Secondary education and political attitudes: Examining the effects on political tolerance of We the People…curriculum. Calabasas, CA: Center for Civic Education.
Center for Civic Education. (1998). We the People…Project Citizen: Student text. Calabasas, CA:
Center for Civic Education.
Center for Civic Education. (2000). We the People…Project Citizen: A professional development manual. Calabasas, CA: Center for Civic Education.
Center for Civic Education. (2003). We the People…Project Citizen. Retrieved October 16, 2003, from
http://www.civiced.org/project_citizen.html#intro.
Chaffee S. H., Jackson-Beeck, M., Durall, J., & Wilson, D.
(1977). Mass communication in political socialization.
In S. A. Renshon (Ed.), Handbook of political socialization, (pp. 223-258). New York: The Free Press.
Chaffee, S. H., & Becker, L. B. (1975). Young voters’
reactions to early Watergate issues. American Political Quarterly, 3, 360-385.
Chang, H. (1993). 民主法治教育之研究 [A study of democratic and law-related education]. Taipei, Taiwan: Shi-Da Shu Yuan.
Chang, H., Wu, M., & Liou, S. (1999). 合作學習在公民 教 育 中 的 意 義 [The implications of cooperative learning in citizenship education]. Bulletin of Civic and Moral Education, 8, 123-152.
Chen, C. (1993). Effects of student background on elementary school children’s political attitudes in Chiayi, Taiwan, the Republic of China. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Northern Colorado.
Chen, C. (1994). 北、高兩市國中學生政治認知與態度之 研 究 [A study on the political knowledge and political attitudes of junior high school students in Taipei and Kaohsiung cities]. Unpublished master thesis, National Taiwan Normal University.
Chen, F. (1995). 價值澄清式法治教學對國中生法治知 識與態度影響之實驗研究 [An experimental study of the impact that values clarification law-related education approach on junior high students’
knowledge and attitude of rule of law]. Unpublished master thesis, National Taiwan Normal University.
Cheng, H. (2001). 高中生公民參與態度與行為之研究:
以台北市公立高中為例 [A study of high school students’ attitudes toward and behaviors of civic participation: A case study of Taipei’s public high school students]. Unpublished master thesis, National Taiwan Normal University.
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Connell, R. W. (1971). The child’s construction of politics.
Melbourne, Australia: Melbourne University Press.
Deng, Y., Wen, M., Chang, S., & Doong, S. (1997). 邁向 廿一世紀的公民教育—公民教材發展取向之探討 [Civic education for the 21st century: An inquiry into the development of civic teaching materials]. Paper presented at the Symposium of the Orientation of Civic Education for the 21st Century. Taipei, Taiwan.
Dominick, J. (1972). Television and political socialization.
Educational Broadcasting Review, 6, 48-56.
Doong, S. (2001, November). Reconstructing political education in Taiwan: A study on perspectives of teacher educators and senior high school teachers of civic/citizenship education. Paper presented at the
International Conference of Citizenship and Teacher Education. Taipei, Taiwan.
Ehman, L. H. (1969a). Political socialization and the high school social studies curriculum. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, The University of Michigan.
Ehman, L. H. (1969b). An analysis of the relationships of selected educational variables with the political socialization of high school students. American Educational Research Journal, 6, 559-580.
Ehman, L. H. (1970). Normative discourse and attitude change in the social studies classroom. The High School Journal, 54, 76-83.
Ehman, L. H. (1980). Changes in high school students’
political attitudes as a function of social studies classroom climate. American Educational Research Journal, 17, 253-265.
Engle, S. H., & Ochoa, A.S. (1988). Education for democratic citizenship: Decision making in the social studies. New York: Teachers College Press.
Fraenkel, J. R., & Wallen, N. E. (2000). How to design and evaluate research in education (4th ed.). New York:
McGraw Hill.
Garramone, G. M., & Atkin, C. K. (1986). Mass communication and political socialization: Specifying the effects. Public Opinion Quarterly, 50, 76-86.
Hahn, C. L. (1998). Becoming political: Comparative perspectives on citizenship education. New York:
State University of New York Press.
Hahn, C. L., & Tocci, C. (1990). Classroom climate and controversial issues discussions: A five nation study.
Theory and Research in Social Education, 18 (4), 344-362.
Harwood, A. M. (1991, April). The difference between
“Democracy sucks” and “I may become a politician”:
Views from three high school civics classes. Paper Presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Chicago, IL.
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 341 604).
Huang M. (1997). An assessment of the economic knowledge of ninth grade junior high school students in Taiwan. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Missouri-Columbia
Huang, J. (1994). 台北市高中職學生現代公民性及其家 庭因素之研究 [A study of the modern civic traits and family factors of Taipei’s high school and vocational school students]. Unpublished master thesis, National Taiwan Normal University.
Jennings, M. K., & Niemi, R. G. (1974). The political character of adolescence: The influence of families and schools. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Langton, S. (1988). Citizen participation and citizenship education in the 21st century. Paper presented at Citizenship for the 21st Century: A national conference on the future of Civics Education.
Washington, D.C.
Liao, T., Liu, M., & Doong, S. (1998). 議題中心教學對 國中學生「公民參與態度」影響之實驗研究 [An experimental study of the issues-centered approach on junior high students’ attitudes of civic participation].
Taipei, Taiwan: National Science Council Support Academic Research Report.
Liou, S. (2000, November). Clarence D. Kingsley: A search for civic education. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the College and University Faculty Assembly of the National Council for the Social Studies. San Antonio, TX. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 448 091)
Liou, S. (2002). We the People…Project Citizen: A case study. Bulletin of Civic and Moral Education, 11, 109-130.
Little, R. J., & Rubin, D. B. (1987). Statistical analysis with missing data. New York: Wiley.
Merriam, S. B. (1998). Qualitative research and case study applications in education. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Inc.
National Assessment of Educational Progress. (1996).
Civics framework for the 1998 national assessment of educational progress. Washington, DC: United States Department of Education.
National Assessment of Educational Progress. (1999).
NAEP 1998 civics report card for the nation.
Washington, DC: United States Department of Education.
National Commission on Excellence in Education. (1983).
A nation at risk. Washington, DC: U. S. Department of Education.
National Council for the Social Studies. (1981). Essentials of social studies, Social Education, 45(3), 163-164.
National Council for the Social Studies. (1994).
Curriculum standards for social studies: Expectation of excellence. Washington, D.C.: National Council for the Social Studies.
National Taiwan Normal University Department of Civic Education. (1997). Civic education--case study in Taiwan. (Research report for a project directed by the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement.)
Niemi, R. G., & Junn, J. (1998). Civic education: What makes students learn? New Haven, CN: Yale University Press.
Patrick, J. J. (1972). The impact of an experimental course,
“American Political Behavior,” on the knowledge, skills, and attitudes of secondary school students.
Social Education, 36, 168-179.
Patrick, J. J. (1999a). Concepts at the core of education for democratic citizenship. In C. F. Bahmueller, & J. J.
Patrick (Eds.), Principles and practice of education for democratic citizenship: International perspectives and projects (pp. 1-40). Bloomington, IN: ERIC Clearinghouse for Social Studies/Social Science Education.
Patrick, J. J. (1999b). Education for constructive engagement of citizens in democratic civil society and government. In C. F. Bahmueller and J. J. Patrick (Eds.), Principles and practice of education for democratic citizenship: International perspectives and projects (pp. 41-60). Bloomington, IN: ERIC Clearinghouse for Social Studies/Social Science Education.
Porter, G. S. (1978). Mass media and the political socialization of children and adolescents.
Unpublished doctoral dissertation, The University of Iowa.
Remy, R.C. (1972). High school seniors’ attitudes toward their civics and government instruction. Social Education, 34 (2), 590-622.
SAS Institute Inc. (1999). SAS/STAT® user’s guide, version 8. Cary, NC: SAS Institute Inc.
Sheen, L., Lu, J., & Chou, Y. (1998). 台灣地區高級中等 學校學生公民發展之研究 [The study of citizenship development of senior high school students in Taiwan].
Taipei, Taiwan: National Science Council Support Academic Research Report.
Sheen, L., Lu, J., & Chou, Y. (1999). 台灣地區國民中學 學 生 公 民 發 展 之 研 究 [The study of citizenship development of junior high school students in Taiwan].
Taipei, Taiwan: National Science Council Support Academic Research Report.
Soule, S. (2000). Beyond communism and war: The effect of civic education on the democratic attitudes and the behavior of Bosnian and Herzegovinian youth.
Retrieved March 16, 2001, from http://www.civiced.org/eval_bih.pdf.
SPSS Inc. (1999). SPSS base 10.0 user’s guide. Chicago:
SPSS Inc.
Tolo, K. W. (1998). An Assessment of We the People…Project Citizen: Promoting citizenship in classrooms and communities. Austin, TX: Lyndon B.
Johnson School of Public Affairs.
Torney, J. V., Oppenheim, A. N., & Farnen, R. F. (1975).
Civic education in ten countries: An empirical study.
New York: John Wiley and Sons.
Torney-Purta, J., Lehmann, R., Oswald, H., & Schulz, W.
(2001). Citizenship and education in twenty-eight countries: Civic knowledge and engagement at age fourteen. Amsterdam, Netherlands: International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement.
Torney-Purta, J., Schwille, J., & Amadeo, J. (Eds.). (1999).
Civic education across countries: twenty-four national case studies from the IEA civic education project. Amsterdam, Netherlands: International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement.
Verba, S., Schlozman, K. L., & Brady, H. E. (1995). Voice and equality: Civic voluntarism in American politics.
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Vontz, T. S., Metcalf, K. K., & Patrick, J. J. (2000). Project Citizen and the civic development of adolescent students in Indiana, Latvia, and Lithuania.
Bloomington, IN: The ERIC Clearinghouse for Social Studies/Social Science Education.
Wang, C. (2000). 台北縣雙和地區國中生民主態度之研 究 [A study on the democratic attitudes of junior high school students in two cities of Taipei County].
Bulletin of Civic and Moral Education, 9, 307-336.
Wasburn, P. C. (1986). The political role of the American school. Theory and Research in Social Education, 14 (1), 51-65.
Weissberg, R. (1974). Political learning, political choice, and democratic citizenship. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice-Hall.
Wincker, E. A. (1984, September). Institutionalization and participation in Taiwan: From hard to soft authoritarianism. China Quarterly, 99, 481-499.
Acknowledgements
This research was supported by the Center for Civic Education, U. S. A.. The author is grateful to anonymous reviewers at Journal of National Taiwan Normal University: Education for helpful comments on earlier drafts of this paper.