Interactivity

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dimension from different angles. Last, but not least, we examine the physical impacts of VR as described below.

2.1 Technical Factor

Telepresence refers to a set of technologies which allow a person to feel as if they are present, to give the appearance of being present, or to have an effect, via telerobotics, at a place other than their true location. It is a key component contributing to realistic responses in VR. Two of the most important determinants of telepresence in VR are interactivity and vividness (Coyle & Thorson, 2001; Steuer, 1992). We can see the relationship of telepresence by Steuer in Figure 2.1. Realism is also an important contributory factor to presence (Sanchez-Vives & Slater, 2005). New media clearly differs from traditional media is the level of realism (Coyle & Thorson, 2001). Also, multisensory interactions can more easily create salient experiences that affect behavior (Daugherty et al., 2008; Ebbesen & Ahsan, 2017). The value placed on the response of

“feeling real and present” in VR experience could help us understand how visitors feel.

Consequently, we decided to adopt these three variables in our study—interactivity, vividness, and realism (Figure 2.2).

Figure 2.1. Telepresence by Steuer 1992 Figure 2.2. VR Telepresence

2.1.1 Interactivity

There are extensive definitions of interactivity found in different fields

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(Stephanidis et al., 2012). Different media have been used, such as the internet, VR, AR, and so on. In addition, a variety of research contexts have been included, such as marketing, healthcare, entertainment, medical, and retail sales. VR studies of interactivity in different research contexts are summarized in Table 2.1.

Table 2.1. Interactivity

The extent to which users can modify the form and content of a mediated environment in real-time.

Focus on three stimulus-driven variables: Speed, Mapping, Range

Bailenson et al.,

2008 Learning

Defining feedback and (expected) contingency are the features of interactivity.

Focus on two contributing aspects of VR:

1. the ability to capture and review physical behavior

2. the ability to see one’s avatar rendered in real time from third person points of view.

Florenthal

&Shoham, 2010 Retail As a Form of action that may include communication but is not restricted to it. Focus on perceived interactivity in four mode of channel: human, medium, message, and product.

Wang &Reid,

2011 Medical

Refers to human-computer interaction:

(1) feedback-focused interaction (2) gesture-based interaction (3) haptic-based interaction

Focus on the types of interactivity afforded by different VR systems targeting on benefiting children therapy.

Stephanidis et

al., 2012 Nonspecific

The way users interact with artificial world, which creates the immersive experience of being present.

Focus on the evolution and trends of interactivity.

Cheng, Chieng,

&Chieng, 2014 Consumption

Use Steuer’s definition, but regard vividness as sensory perceptions stimulus which improve interactivity

Focus on the relationship between interactivity and other factors, including vividness, flow, skill, challenge, focused attention, telepresence.

Seibert, 2014 Game Use Steuer’s definition

Focus on the impact of interactivity toward game player’s presence.

Christopoulos, Conrad,

&Shukla, 2014

Education

Interactions with the content of the world and other users be performed in virtual worlds.

Focus on engaging learning experiences from mapping and taxonomising the various types of interactions that take place both in-reality and in-virtual in a hybrid approach.

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Use Steuer’s definition and emphasise it is where one modality alters the perception of another.

Focus on three types of stimulus: visual, audio, tactile.

Ebbesen

&Ahsan, 2017

Marketing, Brand

Use Steuer’s definition

Focus on how to produce presence in Experience Marketing

Park et al., 2018 Product Use Steuer’s definition

Focus on telepresence of different media type interactivity makes.

Ahmed, 2018 Consumption Use Steuer’s definition

Focus on its effects on consumers’ psychological responses for advertisement.

Seibert &Shafer,

2018 Game Use Steuer’s definition

Focus on its relation with control mapping and naturalness.

This study adopts the concept of measuring interactivity by three stimulus-driven variables: range, mapping, and speed (Figure 2.1). Steuer (1992) defined interactivity as the extent to which users can modify the form and content of a mediated environment in real-time (Coyle & Thorson, 2001; Jung et al., 2016; McMillan & Hwang, 2002;

Sanchez-Vives & Slater, 2005; Steuer, 1992). The first factor, range, refers to the number of changes that can be affected by the mediated environment (Steuer, 1992).

Within this range, content can be manipulated (Coyle & Thorson, 2001). The second variable, mapping, refers to the way in which human actions are connected to actions within a mediated environment. Song and Zinkhan (2008) mentioned a similar concept called reaction. Reactive communication requires that subsequent messages refer to earlier ones (Song & Zinkhan, 2008). The last one, speed, refers to the rate at which external stimulus/inputs can be absorbed into the mediated environment (Steuer, 1992).

Within such speed parameters, content can be manipulated (Coyle & Thorson, 2001).

In other words, the focus is on which messages can be delivered and directed at which persons to receive them (McMillan & Hwang, 2002).

The objective of interactivity is often to enhance the salience of a brand post, characterized by two-way communication between companies and customers, as well as between customers themselves (de Vries et al., 2012). This approach is consistent

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with NPM’s goal to enhance their brand impression about the relics. Also, interactivity can be achieved through multiple sensory channels that allow people to explore VEs through sight, sound, touch, and sometimes even through smell (Wang & Reid, 2011).

NPM made available a complete VR exhibition for our experiment to observe interactivity among visitors.

In Table 2.1, emerging trends can be seen in how interactivity has been included in various VR studies. The various focus include marketing (Ebbesen & Ahsan, 2017), consumers and products (Ahmed, 2018; Cheng et al., 2014; Park et al., 2018), applications in games (Seibert, 2014; Seibert & Shafer, 2018), and in education and learning settings (Bailenson et al., 2008; Christopoulos et al., 2014). However, almost none of them apply to the museum context. Thus, we will apply Steuer’s (1992) definition of interactivity as a stimulus in this study based in a museum context.