Chapter 6 Promoting Language across the Curriculum at Secondary Level
6.2 Language across the Curriculum
LaC is an approach that integrates language learning and content learning (EDB, 2009).
It can be adopted to support students in exploring knowledge of different subjects while improving their language proficiency at the same time. Non-language subjects provide a context for language learning while effective language development facilitates the learning of these subjects.
In implementing LaC, teachers should understand the language needs of the different KLAs and the connection between English for general purposes and English for academic purposes. Focus in LaC should be placed on the learning and teaching of subject-specific language items, text structures and rhetorical functions typical of academic texts (Paltridge, Harbon, Hirsch, Shen, Stevenson, Phakiti & Woodrow, 2009).
To develop students’ academic language and content awareness, there must be explicit teaching of reading and enabling skills as well as rhetorical functions, text structures and language items typical of academic texts.
6.2.1 Strategies to Promote LaC
Ways in which English teachers can help students tackle the language demand that they may find challenging in non-language subjects include:
Use of Visual Representation to Deconstruct the Structure, Language and Content of Texts
demonstrating to students learning skills that they can apply in the study of non-language subjects by making use of texts on cross-curricular themes in the everyday English classroom, e.g. teachers can guide students to understand a text about environmental pollution by deconstructing the structure, language and content of the text using visual representation such as the graphic organiser in Figure 1.
A Sample Text Used in the English Classroom (Topic: Environmental Pollution)
…There are a number of factors contributing to environmental pollution…Vehicles that run on diesel should be banned. Exhaust fumes emitted from diesel vehicles are one of the sources of air pollution, as they contain toxic chemicals … oil spills as a result of equipment fault of oil tankers…Since paper products are made from wood, if more paper is used, more trees will be cut down, which will lead to deforestation. Using less paper can definitely help save our environment…the temperature of the Earth continues to rise because of the frequent use of air-conditioners…
Figure 1: A Fishbone Diagram Illustrating the Cause-and-effect Relationship between Information in the Text
Factors Contributing to Environmental Pollution
Note: Other examples of graphic organisers (e.g. flow charts, Venn diagrams, data (as) exhaust fumes from
diesel vehicles contain toxic chemicals
air pollution
oil spills (as a result of)
equipment fault of oil tankers
(since)increasing use of paper products (made from wood)
(because of)
frequent use of air-conditioners
deforestation
rise in temperature of the Earth Environmental
pollution
Reading and Enabling Skills
explicitly teaching students reading and enabling skills to support them in comprehending information and ideas in academic texts such as:
- vocabulary building strategies (Table 1) including knowledge of word formation (e.g. affixation, compounding, blending) to help them work out the meaning of unfamiliar words with examples from other KLAs; and
Table 1: Examples of Vocabulary Building Strategies Knowledge of
Word Formation Examples
Affixation exhale (prefix: “ex-”; meaning: away from)
civilisation (suffix: “-tion”; meaning: the process of) Compounding “test” + “tube” “test tube”
Blending “smoke” + “fog” “smog”
- phonics knowledge that can enhance students’ phonological awareness and support them in reading aloud and spelling.
Communication/Interaction Strategies
teaching students strategies for effective oral communication including communication/interaction strategies that students can apply in presentation and discussion activities across subjects (e.g. maintaining eye contact, responding readily to others’ questions, opinions or comments, speaking at a volume appropriate to the situation); and
Features of Different Text Types
raising students’ awareness of the features of different text types (e.g. reports, essays), including the rhetorical functions, text structures and language items typical of academic texts by integrating the use of a variety of text types commonly found across KLAs.
6.2.2 Rhetorical Functions, Text Structures and Language Items Typical of Academic Texts
The choice of language items ties in closely with the text structures and rhetorical functions in academic texts (Paltridge et al., 2009). The text structure of an academic text (e.g. an exposition) may consist of as simple as one single rhetorical function (e.g.
“to compare and contrast”), introduced by particular language items (e.g. the use of the cohesive device “on the contrary” to present opposite views). However, the text structure of a more complex academic text, (e.g. a report as in Figure 2), may include multiple rhetorical functions (e.g. “to describe” and “to make predictions” in the introduction, “to give instructions” in the method section, “to compare” in the results section, “to present facts” in the conclusion, “to give explanations” in the discussion).
These rhetorical functions are introduced by different language items, for example, the use of
“aims to” to describe the aim;
the future tense “will dissolve” to make predictions about the results;
imperatives to give instructions;
the comparative adjective “was lighter than” to compare differences in the results observed;
the present tense “dissolves” to present facts; and
the cohesive devices “as a result of” and “because” to give explanations.
Figure 2: An Example of a More Complex Academic Text (e.g. a report)
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Text structure
Introduction
Rhetorical functions Language items
Method Results Conclusion
… aims to…
…will dissolve…
Put an egg…
…was lighter than…
…as a result of…
…because…
Discussion
To present facts To give explanations
To compare To describe;
To make predictions
…dissolves…
To give instructions
Introduction (Aim)
This experiment aims to find out the effects of vinegar on eggshells…
(Hypothesis)
The egg shell will dissolve…
Method
(Materials/Apparatus)
2 raw eggs
2 beakers
Some vinegar
(Procedures)
1. Put an egg in each of the beakers.
2. Pour some vinegar into one of the beakers until the egg (Egg A) is covered.
3. Add nothing to the other beaker (Egg B, the control).
4. Record the observation for Eggs A and B after 48 hours.
Results
Some bubbles came out from the surface of the eggshell. The colour of the eggshell of Egg A was lighter than that of Egg B. Part of the eggshell disappeared…
Conclusion
Vinegar dissolves the eggshell…
Discussion
Eggshells contain calcium carbonate, which reacts with the acetic acid in vinegar. The eggshell is dissolved because the acetic acid breaks up the calcium and carbonate in the eggshell. The bubbles on the eggshell are carbon dioxide generated as a result of the reaction between the carbonate and acetic acid…
The experiment can be improved by…
English teachers can collaborate with teachers of other KLAs and help students make connection with their learning experiences by drawing their attention to the rhetorical functions, text structures and language items commonly found across KLAs (Table 2) and designing related learning and teaching activities for practice and consolidation.
……
Table 2: Examples of Rhetorical Functions and their Related Language Items Commonly Found across KLAs
Examples of
Rhetorical Functions Language Items (Examples) Examples
Comparing/Contrasting “However”, “on the contrary”,
“similarly”
Some historians think that the paintings had entertainment functions. However, these paintings were usually found at…(PSHE)
Sequencing “After”, “before”, “then” Clean the food thoroughly before cooking…(TE) Explaining “Since”, “because of”, “as a
result (of)”
As a result, more sulphur dioxide is produced…(SE)
Describing Adjectives, relative clauses Larger current makes the bulb brighter… (SE) Defining “Refers to”, “is known as” Osmosis refers to the diffusion of fluid…(SE) Making suggestions “Can”, “may”, “suggest” The government can make better use of the land
through…(PSHE)
Giving instructions Imperatives List the characteristics of the four phases in the long jump…(PE)
Presenting facts Present tense A computer system consists of…(TE) Presenting past events Past tense The waltz was originally a peasant dance in
Austria…(AE) Making assumption Conditional clauses, “let”,
“suppose”
Suppose Jane’s salary is $10,000 now. What is the percentage of… (ME)
Note: Key Learning Areas
ME: Mathematics Education; PSHE: Personal, Social and Humanities Education;
SE: Science Education; TE: Technology Education; AE: Arts Education;
PE: Physical Education