Two limitations of the current study should be acknowledged.
First of all, though this study claimed to last 6 weeks, its actual intervention was only 4-week long, exclusive of the first preparation and the final wrap-up stages. Such duration was relatively brief for empirical studies. Originally, the researcher had intended to extend the treatment. However, due to the approaching final examination, if the study was prolonged, it would span across winter vacation, and more variables would inevitably occur. Despite the short-term experiment, a number of positive
outcomes still resonate with the hypothesis that Reciprocal Teaching is indeed beneficial to students. However, it is reasonable to hypothesize that longer intervention may give rise to more advancement.
Secondly, the sample size of this study is small (N=34). The recruited students all came from central part of Taiwan, and possessed certain level of English language.
Therefore, the findings can’t be simply generalized to other contexts, such as different regions or age groups, etc. More research adopting similar methodology is suggested to verify the results.
Conclusion
With the advent of the implementation for the curriculum guidelines for “12-year Basic Education” (MOE, 2018), it is of great urgency for teachers to adopt a pedagogy that can promote students’ English reading competence as listed in the guidelines. Reciprocal Teaching, developed by Palinscar and Brown (1984) over three decades ago, proves to stand the test of time in fostering reading comprehension along with some other joint benefits for students. As another core competence required in the guideline, critical thinking also serves as an agent for the cultivation of lifelong learners. This preliminary study aimed to investigate the feasibility of integrating Reciprocal Teaching into naturally-constituted classrooms with an eye to improving reading competence and developing critical thinking. The above findings have shown evidence to support Reciprocal Teaching as a valid instructional program exerting positive and lasting effects on students. Finally, it is hoped that Reciprocal Teaching can be more widely adopted in the EFL context, so a growing number of teachers and students can reap the benefits of it.
REFERENCES
Almaliki, M. Q. (2017). The role of Socratic questioning in promoting students’
critical thinking in EFL classrooms at the University of Basra: A qualitative-based study. The Journal of Kufa Center for Studies, 46, 163-248.
Anderson, L. W., & Krathwohl, D. R. (Eds.). (2001) A taxonomy of learning, teaching, and assessing: A revision of Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives. New York: Longman.
Anderson, N. J. (2002). The Role of Metacognition in Second/Foreign Language Teaching and Learning. ERIC Digest. Washington DC: ERIC Clearinghouse on Languages and Linguistics.
Assaly, I., & Igbaria, A. K. (2014). A content analysis of the reading and listening activities in the EFL textbook of master class. Education Journal, 3(2), 24-38.
Atkinson, D. (1997). A critical approach to critical thinking in TESOL. TESOL Quarterly, 31(1), 71-94.
Aviles, C. B. (1999). Understanding and testing for "critical thinking" with Bloom's taxonomy of educational objectives. Washington, DC: ERIC Clearinghouse.
Baker, L., & Brown, A. L. (1984). Metacognitive skills and reading. In R. Barr, M. L.
Kamil, P. Mosenthal, & P. D. Pearson (Eds.), Handbook of reading research (Vol. 2, pp. 353-394). White Plains, NY: Longman.
Beyer, B. (1983). Common sense about teaching thinking skills. Educational Leadership. 41,44-49. Retrieved from
http://shop.ascd.org/ASCD/pdf/journals/ed_lead/el_198311_beyer.pdf Block, C. C., & Mangieri, J. N. (2003). Exemplary literacy teachers: Promoting
success for all children in grades k-5. New York, NY: Guilford.
Bloom, B. S. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives: Classification of
educational goals. Handbook 1: Cognitive domain. New York: Longman, Green
& Co.
Brown, A. L., Armbruster, B., & Baker, L. (1986). The role of metacognition in reading and studying. In J. Orasanu (Ed.), Reading comprehension: From research to practice (pp. 4975). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum
Brown, T. (2004). Bloom’s taxonomy and critical thinking. In J. L. Kincheloe & D.
Weil (Eds.), Critical thinking and learning: An encyclopedia for parents and teachers (pp.77-82). London: Greenwood Press.
Browne, M. N., & Keeley, S. M. (2018). Asking the right questions: A guide to critical thinking. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.
Chaffee, J. (2015) Thinking Critically (11th ed.). Dallas, TX: Houghton Mifflin Company.
Chamot, A. U., Barnhardt, S., El-Dinary, P., & Robbins, J. (1996). Methods for teaching learning strategies in the foreign language classroom. In R. L. Oxford (Ed.), Language learning strategies around the world:Cross-cultural
perspectives (pp. 175-188). Manoa, HI: University of Hawai’i Press
Chen, H. J. (2004). An analysis of computer science exam questions using revised Bloom's taxonomy. Unpublished master's thesis, National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei.
Chern, C. L. (2005) The role of junior high school EFL reading and instruction in Nine Year Integrated Curriculum. In The challenge and solution of English instruction in Nine year Integrated Curriculum. Taipei: NTNU.
Chou, M. H. (2015). Impacts of the test of English listening comprehension on students’ English learning expectations in Taiwan. Language. Culture and
on teachers and teaching in Taiwan. Asian-Pacific Journal of Second and Foreign Language Education, 2(5), 191-208
Cohen, A. D. (2010). Focus on the language learner: Styles, strategies and motivation.
In N. Schmitt (Ed.), An introduction to applied linguistics (2nd ed.; pp. 161-178).
London, UK: Hodder Education.
Coley, J. D., DePinto, T., Craig, S., & Gardner, R. (1993). From college to classroom:
Three teachers’ accounts of their adaptations of reciprocal teaching. The Elementary School Journal, 94(2), 255-266.
Cooper, J. D., Warncke, E. W., & Shipman, D. A. (1988). The what and how of reading instruction (2nd ed.). Columbus, OH: Merrill.
Dalton, J. ,& Smith, D. (1986). Extending children’s special abilities: Strategies for primary classrooms. Melbourne, Australia: Ministry of Education.
Day, R. (2003). Teaching critical thinking and discussion. The Language Teacher.
27(7) 25-27.
Dewey, J. (1933). How we think: A restatement of the relation of reflective thinking to the educative process. Boston, MA: Health.
Dole, J. A., Duffy, G. G., Roehler, L. R., & Pearson, P. D. (1991). Moving from the old to the new: Research on reading comprehension instruction. Review of Educational Research, 61, 239–264.
Duke, N. K., & Pearson, P. (2002). Effective practices for developing reading
comprehension. In Alan E. Farstrup & S. J. Samuels (Eds.), What research has to say about reading instruction (3rd ed., pp. 205-242). Newark, DE: International Reading Association, Inc.
Flavell, J. H. (1979). Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of Cognitive developmental inquiry. American Psychologist, 906-911.
Forehand, M. (2005). Bloom's taxonomy: Original and revised. In M. Orey (Ed.).
Emerging perspectives on learning, teaching, and technology. Retrieved from http://sciencesite.16mb.com/Bloom's Taxonomy Original and Revised by Mary Forehand.pdf
Frances, S. M., & Eckart, J. A. (1992). The effects of reciprocal teaching on comprehension, ERIC Document Reproduction Service NO. ED 350 572.
Garderen, D. Van. (2004). Focus on inclusion reciprocal teaching as a
comprehension strategy for understanding mathematical. New York: Taylor &
Francis Inc.
Ghorbani, M. R., Gangeraj, A. A., & Alavi, S. Z. (2013). Reciprocal Teaching of Comprehension Strategies Improves EFL Learners’ Writing Ability. Current Issues in Education, 16(1).
Greenway, C. (2002). The process, pitfalls and benefits of implementing a reciprocal teaching intervention to improve the reading comprehension of a group of year 6 pupils. Educational Psychology in Practice. 18(2), 113-137.
Hacker, D. J., & Tenent, A. (2002). Implementing reciprocal teaching in the classroom: Overcoming obstacles and making modifications. Journal of Educational Psychology, 94(4), 699–718. DOI:10.1037//0022-0663.94.4.699.
Harvey, S., & Goudvis, A. (2000). Strategies that work: Teaching comprehension to enhance understanding. Markham: Pembroke.
Ikuenobe, P. (2001). Questioning as an epistemic process of critical thinking.
Educational Philosophy and Theory, 325-341
Johnson-Glenberg, M. C. (2000). Training reading comprehension in adequate decoders/poor comprehenders: Verbal versus visual strategies. Journal of Educational Psychology, 772–782.
Kelly, M., Moore, D. W., & Tuck, B. F. (2001). Reciprocal teaching in a regular primary school classroom. Journal of Educational Research, 5361.
DOI:10.1080/00220671.1994.9944834
Kim, K., Sharma, P., Land, S. M., & Furlong, K. P. (2013). Effects of active learning on enhancing student critical thinking in an undergraduate general science course.
Innovative Higher Education, (3), 223-235.
Klingner, J. K., & Vaughn, S. (1996). Reciprocal teaching of reading comprehension strategies for students with learning disabilities who use English as a second language. The Elementary School Journal, 96(3), 275-293.
Kusumoto, Y. (2018). Enhancing critical thinking through active learning. Language Learning in Higher Education, 8(1), pp. 45-63. Retrieved from
doi:10.1515/cercles-2018-0003
Liao, M. H. (2008). Cultivating critical thinking through literature circles in EFL context. Spectrum: Studies in Language, Literature, Translation, and Interpretation, 5, 89-116.
Liaw, M. L. (2007). Content-based reading and writing for critical thinking skills in an EFL context. English Teaching & Learning, 31(2), 45-87.
Lysynchuk, L. M., Pressley, M., & Vye, N. J. (1990). Reciprocal teaching improves standardized reading-comprehension performance in poor comprehenders. The Elementary School Journal, 90, 469–484.
Magogwe, J. M., & Oliver, R. (2007). The relationship between language learning strategies, proficiency, age and self-efficacy beliefs: A study of language learners in Botswana. System, 35(3), 338-352
MOE of Taiwan. (2018). The Guidelines for Senior High School English Curriculum.
Retrieved from
https://www.naer.edu.tw/files/15-1000-14379,c1582-1.php?Lang=zh-tw
Mokhtari, K., & Reichard, C. A. (2002). Assessing Students’ Metacognitive Awareness of Reading Strategies. JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY, (2), 249.
NAER. (2015) Twelve-year Basic Education Curriculum Guidelines. Retrieved from https://ws.moe.edu.tw/001/Upload/23/relfile/8006/51358/9df0910c-56e0-433a-8f 80-05a50efeca72.pdf
Nguyen, T. T. B. (2016). Critical thinking in a Vietnamese tertiary English as a
foreign language context: current practices and prospects (Doctoral dissertation).
Retrieved from
https:// opus.lib.uts.edu.au/bitstream/10453/90067/2/02whole.pdf
Novak, J. D. (1998). Learning, creating, and using knowledge: Concept maps as facilitative tools in schools and corporations. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Oczkus, L. D. (2003). Reciprocal teaching at work: Strategies for improving reading
comprehension. Newark, DE: International reading Association.
OECD (2010). PISA 2009 results: What students know and can do: student performance in reading, mathematics, and science. Retrieved from https://www.oecd.org/pisa/pisaproducts/48852548.pdf
Okkinga, M., van Steensel, R., van Gelderen, A. J., & Sleegers, P. J. (2018). Effects of reciprocal teaching on reading comprehension of low‐achieving adolescents. The importance of specific teacher skills. Journal of research in reading, 41(1), 20-41.
Palincsar, A. S. (1991). Scaffolded instruction of listening comprehension with first graders at risk for academic difficulty. In J. Bruer (Ed.), Toward the practice of using sound instruction (pp. 50–65). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Instruction, 1(2) , 117-175
Paris, S. G., & Winograd, P. (1990). How metacognition can promote academic learning and instruction. In B. F. Jones & L. Idol (Eds.), Dimensions of thinking and cognitive instruction (pp. 15-51). Hillsdale,NJ: Erlbaum.
Paul, R., & Elder, L. (2001). Critical thinking: Tools for taking charge of your learning and your life. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Paul, R., Binker, A. J. A., Martin, D., & Adamson, K. (1995). Critical thinking
handbook: High school: A guide for redesigning instruction. CA: Foundation for Critical Thinking.
Perkins, D. (1992). Smart Schools: Better thinking and learning for every child. New York, NY: Free Press.
Pintrich, P. R. (2002). The role of metacognitive knowledge in learning, teaching, and assessing, 5841(April), 219–225.
Pressley, M., & Afflerbach, P. (1995). Verbal protocols of reading: The nature of constructively responsive reading. Hillsdale, NJ, US: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Qing, X. U. (2013). Fostering critical thinking competence in EFL classroom. Studies in Literature and Language, 7(1), 6-9.
Rafik-Galea, S., & Nair, P. B. (2007). Enhancing ESL teacher trainees’ critical thinking skills through scaffolding. Pan-Pacific Association of Applied Linguistics, 11(1), 99-113.
Rosenshine, B., & Meister, C. (1994). Reciprocal teaching: A review of the research.
Review of Educational Research, 64(4), 479–530.
Salyer, D. (2015). Reading the Web: Internet guided reading with young children.
Reading Teacher, 69(1), 35e39.
Schuenemann, N., Spoerer, N., & Brunstein, J. C. (2013). Integrating self-regulation
in whole-class reciprocal teaching: A moderator-mediator analysis of incremental effects on fifth graders' reading comprehension. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 38, 289-305.
Seymour, J. R., & Osana, H. P. (2003). Reciprocal teaching procedures and principles:
Two teachers’ developing understanding. Teaching and Teacher Education, 19, 325-344.
Shiau, A. J. C. (2010) Using Reciprocal Teaching to Develop Thinking in a Senior High EFL Classroom in Taiwan. National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei.
1-116.
Snow, C. E., Burns, M. S., & Griffin, P. (1998). Preventing reading difficulties in young children. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
Spörer, N., Brunstein, J. C., & Kieschke, U. (2009). Improving students’ reading comprehension skills: Effects of strategy instruction and reciprocal teaching.
Learning and Instruction, 19(3), 272–286. DOI:10.1016.
learninstruc.2008.05.003.
Squire, P. J. (2001). Cognitive levels of testing agricultural science in senior secondary schools in Botswana. Education, 118(1), 100-110.
Tsai, Y. R., & Talley, P. C. (2014). The effect of a course management system (CMS)-supported strategy instruction on EFL reading comprehension and strategy use. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 27(5):422–438.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher mental process.
In M. Cole (Ed.). Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.
Walker, S. E. (2003). Active learning strategies to promote critical thinking. Journal of Athletic Training, 38(3), 263-267.
Yang, Y. F. (2012). Blended learning for college students with English reading difficulties. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 25(5):393–410.
Zimmerman, B. J. (1998). Academic studying and the development of personal skill:
a self-regulatory perspective. Educational Psychologist, 33, 73e86.
Zimmerman, B. J., & Martinez-Pons, M. (1990). Student differences in self-regulated learning: Relating grade, sex, and giftedness to self-efficacy and strategy use.
Journal of Educational Psychology, 82(1), 51-59.
APPENDIX
Appendix A: The Teacher-led Lesson Plans for Stage 1