In this chapter, the study reviews literatures about cultural intelligence, intercultural competence, employs in multicultural workplace, experiential learning theory and intercultural training program. More specifically, each term is defined accordingly and summaries are also addressed at the end of each section.
Intercultural Competence Development
In this section, literatures of intercultural competence and cultural intelligence are reviewed for providing fundamental concepts for this study to clarify the definitions.
Literatures regard to developing intercultural competence are provided as developmental examples.
Intercultural Competence
Lustig & Koester (2010) explain, “culture is a learned set of shared interpretations about beliefs, values, norms and social practices, which affect the behaviors of a relatively large group of people” (p.25). The statement provides an important concept that culture is not only expressing externally via behaviors but also existing internally via our beliefs, values and norms. When communications happen between individuals, the interpretations are shared and culture is formed. According to this address, the interactions between cultures can be refer to intercultural communication and the competence to carry out such activities can be taken as intercultural competence.
Similarly, Deardorff (2004) also defined intercultural competence as “the ability to communicate effectively and appropriately in intercultural situations based on one’s intercultural knowledge, skills, and attitudes” (p.194). It refers to proper and suitable behaviors meet the expectations by a given culture and achieve desired outcomes.
Therefore, the knowledge of the given culture, adequate motivations and proper skills are required during the interactions.
Researchers have dedicated on studies of components of intercultural competence.
Byram (1997) developed a five-category model of Intercultural Communicative Competence which is composed by attitudes, knowledge, skills of discovery and interaction, skills of interpreting and relating, and critical cultural awareness. In his research, attitudes are critical when achieving a successful communication. Knowledge serves as a tool for communicating effectively between cultures. Skills of discovery and interaction require the ability to observe gaps between culture and language. Skills of interpreting and relating require the ability to identify the cultural contents when doing translation between languages. Critical cultural awareness is related to make critical judgements. With regards to the components of intercultural competence, researchers also have tried to explain why people result in different outcomes when communicating across cultural boundaries. Thus, the Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity (DMIS) has been introduced by Bennett (2004) and to explain the pattern of changes in the underlying worldview.
Cultural Intelligence (CQ)
Cultural intelligence is defined as an individual’s capability to work effectively in diverse cultural settings (Ang & Van, 2008a) and is composed by four dimensions which are cognitive CQ, motivational CQ, behavioral CQ and metacognitive CQ (Ang et al., 2006). Cognitive CQ represented to the available cultural norms, practice, routines in different cultures. Motivational CQ indicates the willingness to search out and participate intercultural context and to be motivated to learn more. Behavioral CQ is the ability to carry out appropriate reactions in intercultural settings. Metacognitive
CQ refers to the outcomes when individuals experienced the cross-cultural process and internalize the knowledge learned from previous experiences then reacts better and better (Magnusson, Westjohn, Semenov, Randrianasolo, & Zdravkovic, 2013).
Furthermore, Ng, Dyne and Ang (2009) developed a model integrated with CQ and experiential learning theory and declared CQ can be improved through training in a multicultural context.
Cultural Intelligence Scale.
In this study, the 20-item CQ scale developed by Ang et al. (2007) is used as a part of the measurement in both pre- and post-survey. This 7-point Likert type scale (1 = strongly disagree; 7 = strongly agree) assesses the total average score of CQ on the previous mentioned 4 dimensions. Sample questions are presented as below:
Metacognitive CQ: I am conscious of the cultural knowledge I apply to cross-cultural interactions.
Cognitive CQ: I know the rules for expressing nonverbal behaviors in other cultures.
Motivational CQ: I enjoy interacting with people from different cultures.
Behavioral CQ: I change my verbal behavior (e.g., accent, tone) when a cross- cultural situation requires it.
Intercultural Effectiveness Scale.
Not only Byram (1997) pointed out intercultural competence playing an important role on communications but also Portalla & Chen (2010) further introduced intercultural communication competence (ICC) with a valid instrument, the
intercultural effectiveness scale (IES), for measuring the concept. ICC includes three dimensions: intercultural awareness, intercultural sensitivity, and intercultural effectiveness (Chen & Starosta, 1996). Intercultural awareness is the cognitive process to understand cultural conventions that affect the way of individuals think and behave.
Intercultural sensitivity is a dynamic concept to develop a positive emotion toward cultural differences and to promote an appropriate behavior when communicating in an intercultural context (Chen & Starosta, 1997). Intercultural effectiveness refers to achieving communication goals in intercultural interactions (Portalla & Chen, 2010).
The 20-item intercultural effectiveness scale generated by Portalla & Chen (2010) is included in a part of the pre- and post-survey in this study. The 5-point Likert type scale (1 = strongly disagree; 5 = strongly agree) evaluate ICC with six factors on interaction relaxation, behavioral flexibility, interaction management, message skills, identity maintenance and interactant respect. Sample questions are presented as below:
Interaction relaxation: I find it is easy to talk with people from different cultures.
Behavioral flexibility: I am afraid to express myself when interacting with people from different cultures.
Interaction management: I am able to express my ideas clearly when interacting with people from different cultures.
Message skills: I have problems with grammar when interacting with people from different cultures.
Identity maintenance: I find it is difficult to feel my culturally different counterparts are similar to me.
Interactant respect: I use appropriate eye contact when interacting with people from different cultures.
Developing Intercultural Competence
There are increasing researches focusing on developing intercultural competence.
However, most of them are targeting on student groups and language training and education (Ashwill, 2004; Cant, 2004; Devis Arbona & Chireac 2015; Hoskins &
Sallah, 2011; Krajewski, 2011). Following are researches as developmental examples in this study. Reichard et al. (2015) conducted a two-stage research, and concluded the training embedded with cross-cultural trigger events has influence on increasing cultural intelligence and decreasing ethnocentrism. Study 1 carried out a thematic analysis of 85 U.S. undergraduate students with international experiences to understand the characteristics (i.e., trigger events) encountered during international living. A theoretical model was developed and shown the interconnection between the emergent themes and the development process of cultural competence impacted by cross-cultural trigger events (Figure 2.1.). This model demonstrates similar developing process of the training program in this study. In the needs assessment, program managers from TaiwanICDF are asked to identify a critical intercultural incident. The researcher then categorizes the characteristics of multicultural workplace from the responses.
Figure 2.1. Theoretical model of the role of trigger events in accelerating cross-cultural competence. Adapted from “Engagement in cultural trigger events in the development of cultural competence,” by Reichard et al., 2015, Academy of Management Learning
& Education, 14(4), p.468. Copyright 2015 by Academy of Management Learning &
Education.
Study 2 implemented a pre- & post-survey single group quasi-experimental design on training 130 employees using the emergent definition of a cultural trigger event from Study 1 on the training context. The experimental design is shown in Figure 2.2. The innovative findings support the development of cultural intelligence and provide a useful tool for organizations on the design and implementation of intercultural trainings.
However, in this study, the researcher employed double group quasi-experimental design along with pre- & post-survey. This design helps to enhance the internal validity of the results.
Figure 2.2. Experimental design of study 2 (Adapted from Reichard et al., 2015).
Ramsey & Lorenz (2016) also employed a quasi-experimental design with a pre-
& posttest on 152 MBA students. Different with Reichard’s study (2015), the experimental design divided students into treatment group who took cross-cultural management (CCM) and CQ education while control group only took an entrepreneurship course without focus on CCM or CQ. The findings indicated that CQ was increased on students who took the CCM course and that CQ was positively related to their commitment to and satisfaction with their course. Moreover, students with high level of CQ presented higher satisfaction at the end of the course than those whose CQ level did not change.
Another research conducted by Rehg, Gundlach, & Grigorian (2012) using pre- &
posttest survey on US government contracting trainees indicated that training with a lecture format could improve cognitive CQ, behavioral CQ and specific self-efficacy (SSE). The research also revealed a relationship between CQ and self-efficacy.
Although there are some limitations on the sample size, nature of the sample (public sectors) and reliance on self-reports, this research still contributes to the intercultural competence development. In the same year, MacNab (2012) also implemented a study on cultural intelligence education using experiential approach. Two phases of this
research was participated by 743 management education participants in total. MacNab’s study (2012) helps to fill a gap between experiential learning and CQ development.
Summary
In this present study, intercultural competence is the ability to develop because it enables individuals to interact effectively under intercultural context and help organizations to achieve goals in this changing society. Therefore, how to develop intercultural competence is the process to be explored in this study.
Employees in Multicultural Workplace
Globalization and growing economy create more and more diverse workplace and interactions in organizations. Esty, Griffin and Hirsch (1995) stated “diversity” as acknowledging, understanding, accepting, and valuing differences among people with respect to age, class, race, ethnicity, gender, disabilities, etc. Diversity is a trend for organizational issues and leads to organizational change. How to manage diversity in workplace becomes an important issue for organizations to remain their competitiveness. Therefore, from the inclusive workplace model developed by Barak (2011), multicultural workplace exists when organizations
Value and utilize individuals and intergroup differences within its framework
Cooperate with, and contributes to, its surrounding community
Alleviate the needs of disadvantaged groups in its wider environment
Collaborate with individuals, groups, and organizations across national and cultural boundaries
The multicultural competency checklist developed by Ponterotto, Alexander and
Grieger (1995) expressed critical elements for the establishment of a multicultural program. There are four criteria on the aspect of minority representation:
1. At least 30% of the managerial level represent racial/ethnic minority.
2. At least 30% of papulation are bilingual.
3. At least 30% of workers’ level represent racial/ethnic minority populations.
4. At least 30% of support staff (e.g., secretarial staff, graduate assistant pool) represent racial/ethnic minority populations.
The ability to link different cultures is a critical skill for people who work in a multicultural workplace. More and more studies targeted to this population, such as employees working in overseas locations (Rehg, Gundlach, & Grigorian, 2012), certified substance abuse counselors who receiving patients in a variety of ethnicities (Lassiter & Chang, 2006), student affairs practitioners who involved in multicultural issues (Mueller & Pope, 2001) and a majority of frontline human service providers who have moderated multicultural issues (Caldwell et. al, 2008).
Similar with above cases, the participants of this study are working in the environment with the addressed characters as multicultural workplace. The program managers of TaiwanICDF and the employees in organizations are working in a multicultural workplace where the daily tasks are mostly related with international affairs.
Training Program Development
In this section, literatures of ADDIE Model and experiential learning theory are reviewed for providing fundamental concepts for this study to clarify the definitions.
ADDIE Model
The ADDIE model is conducted throughout the research process. ADDIE model of instructional systems design (ISD) was developed by Branson, Rayner, Cox, Furman,
& King in 1975 to aid US Army for the armed services to train personnel in a variety of tasks; nowadays, it has been used as a procedure for instructional designers and training developers in establishing effective training programs. The model is defined into five phases and provides a process that actively engaged developers in problem solving: Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation and Evaluation (Figure 2.3.).
Figure 2.3. ADDIE model (Adapted from Branson et al., 1975).
Phase 1: Analysis.
In the first phase, the major concern for developers is the target population. A needs assessment is employed to examine the needs of the population by making a distinction between what your target population already know and what they need to know at the end of the course. From the needs assessment, establish a foundation via examining standards and competencies is important to determine what students need when completing the course. Therefore, review the standards and competencies in advance will be helpful in this process. If the course has already been implemented, information may be accessible from previous evaluation. Meanwhile, the content of the training can be analyzed with the help of course scripts. The instructor determines the portion of instruction that is needed to the needs and task assessment.
Phase 2: Design.
In this process, several key facets are essential. Conducting research and planning are major tasks in this stage. Identifying purposes, determining how the purposes will be met, what the instructional plans will be conducted to succeed the purposes, and what tools will be the most effective when delivering the purposes are important (Seels
& Glasgow, 1998). The results from the analysis phase is very critical in this phase.
Planning is required in the first two phases and will decrease the need for further research or redesign.
When connecting goals and purposes with assessments, instructors go back to the first phase for data that provides information about the participants' characteristics, previous experiences, and needs. The information assist instructors in the planning of suitable assessment tools or strategies. If goals, purposes, and assessments do not connected, participants may losing interest and further influent the instructional quality.
And it will also affect the long-term retention of participants. With a careful selection of assessment methods and techniques, participants tends to become actively engaged in the training.
Phase 3: Development.
Instructors must pay attentions on the results from the previous two phases and organize a plan for the implementation of the information during this phase. This stage transforms the instructor’s role from research and planning to production. Drafting, production, and evaluation are the main focuses in this phase. Developing or selecting training materials and conducting comprehensive evaluations are the main tasks for instructors (Seels & Glasgow, 1998). Evaluations during this phase focus differently than the final evaluation in the last phase of the ADDIE model. Instructors are the main persons to determine if the participants will learn from the training and how it can be improved before implementation.
Phase 4: Implementation.
Instructors need to be active in the implementation phase. For the effectiveness of the training, instructors must keep analyzing, redesigning, and enriching the training.
Conducting evaluations during this phase is essential to conduct an effective training.
When the participants and instructors are active involving in the training, modifications can be made immediately to the training to achieve effectiveness.
Phase 5: Evaluation.
The last phase is an important part of the ADDIE model and is multidisciplinary.
The structural evaluation conducted in the development phase during the
implementation phase with the help of participants, and at the end of the implementation in a way as a summary for instructional improvement. During evaluations, the instructors must check if the problem has been solved, if the purposes have been met, and if there is any adjustment for future delivery of the training.
Sometimes, the evaluation may be underestimated because of time or economic factors, however it is critical. The evaluation should be an integral part for further analysis and improvement data for future trainings.
Following the introduction of these five phases, this study adapts a similar process for developing the intercultural training program. A needs assessment was conducted via an on-line survey to the ICDF program managers. A qualitative analysis regards to the characters of needs and instructional problems are identified. The objectives and participants existing knowledge and skills are considered into the design of the training.
Based on the previous analysis, the assessment instruments and training contents are developed. This study utilize lectures, online materials, case study, role-play, etc. to enrich course content. Feedbacks from participants will be collected through discussion during and after the implementation of the training program. In the last phase, evaluation of the effectiveness of training program will be conducted via the analysis on pre- & post-survey. Implications and limitations will be discussed for future improvement.
Experiential Learning Theory (ELT)
According to Kolb (1984), “learning is the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience” (p.38). Experience plays as a fundamental element in the learning process. Since the experiential learning theory (ELT) has been introduced by Kolb in 1984, this one of the best known educational theory presents a
structure for educators in constructing a course using a learning cycle. From Kolb’s learning model (see Figure 2.4.), the knowledge is learned from the mergence of grasping and transforming experience. Concrete experiences are basis for observations and reflections. Then the reflections are processed into abstract concepts as new implications that can be actively tested and serve as guides in creating new experiences.
Figure 2.4. Experiential learning cycle. Adapted from “Experiential learning theory: A dynamic, holistic approach to management learning, education and development,” by A. Kolb, & D. A. Kolb, 2009, The SAGES Handbook of Management Learning, Education and Development, p.44. Copyright 2009 by SAGE Publications Ltd.
Experiential learning theory is embedded into the intercultural training program in this study since the participants are employees in a multicultural workplace. The work experiences play as the concrete experiences and can be easily transformed through the
concepts. Then converging to the active experimentation such as reflections from the instructor and observations on others during the training, the new experience is created and plays as a cycle for further learning process.
Summary
Following the ADDIE model, this study conducts and analyze a needs assessment to ICDF program managers. Design and develop the intercultural training program based on the outcomes from the analysis. Moreover, considering the characteristics of multicultural workplace and the experiences from the participants could be taken as a valuable assets, case studies and experience sharing are structured into the experiential learning process in order to combine both theoretical concepts and practical experiences.
The effectiveness of training program is evaluated after implementation.