Many researchers have delved into the historical development of various international sports leagues and globalization has affected each sport over time, and in various countries. Other research has described the growth and popularity of basketball, the influence the NBA has impacted on different countries, and how the NBA attracts international talent. In this literature review, I will focus specifically on: Firstly, basketball and its growth into an international sport;
secondly, the case of the NBA and its influence on the international sports market;
and thirdly, the CBA and its influence on basketball and attracting international talent. Then this chapter will conclude with the theoretical research on sports labor migration, globalization of sports and other migration theories.
The Background of Basketball
Basketball has grown into such a global sports conglomerate, which is evident in the popularity of the NBA. In the United States, basketball, second to American football, is at the top of sports businesses at every level of competition.
Basketball is so popular that the players are idolized, the sport romanticized and the business continuously growing, even past the State borders. Basketball has figured out how to transgress borders, cultures, nationalities and time. Many of the superstars of basketball have become some of the most recognized faces on this planet. Basketball has become such a global phenomenon that anywhere you go in the world, any person you ask will be able to name at least one famous star player.
However, in order to fully understand and comprehend the depth and span of today’s basketball environment, we must examine the beginnings and development of the sport over time. So let’s look at the history and major timeline shifts of basketball in the United States and the NBA.
In terms of the Olympic games, basketball quickly grew more popular and more competitive over the last century. Basketball, at first, was only a demonstration sport at the 1904 Olympics in St. Louis and the1924 London games (http://www.nba.com). In the 1936 Berlin Olympic games, basketball was added as a medal sport, which was won by the USA team (Zegers, 2017). Team USA has consistently outperformed the rest of the world with dominant performances in Olympic basketball for almost 80 years, winning the gold medals in 15 of 19
Olympic Games. Women’s basketball entered the Olympic games in 1972 at the Munich games, and the US team has medaled at every game, except one (https://www.olympic.org).
The 1992 Barcelona Olympic Games, the face of basketball changed with the assembly of the USA “Dream Team,” which included the NBA most famous and elite basketball players of all time, such as Michael Jordan, Magic Johnson, Larry Bird, Scottie Pippen, Patrick Ewing, Charles Barkley and Carl Malone (https://www.olympic.org). With the elimination of restrictions and distinctions between amateur and professional players in 1989, NBA professional player were now able to compete in the FIBA World Championships and the Olympics, thus allowing the most prominent and distinguished American players to play and represent Team USA (http://www.nba.com).
Another contributing factor was the fall of the Soviet Union and the splitting of their team into players playing for separate national teams, such as Lithuania and Russia (Zegers, 2017). Olympic basketball is the highest level of basketball and the most competitive in the world. Since its introduction in 1936, basketball has become more global, with more national teams becoming more competitive, learning from one another and hiring international coaches and staff to help develop their players.
Globalization of Basketball
“Global sport” is viewed as a thoroughly progressive and liberating phenomenon that opens up the potential for greater human contact, dialogue and friendship. Global sport events such as the 2008 Beijing Olympics and allied promotional campaigns including the International Olympic Committee’s (IOC)
‘Celebrate Humanity’ program are said to promote the spread of human rights and democracy, and improve inter-cultural understanding. In contrast to such sentiments, the present structure of global sport can also be seen as symptomatic of a new and consumer dominated phase of western capitalism (https://www.olympic.org). Global consumer sport imposes its cultural products on vulnerable communities across the global. One consequence of this imposition is the eradication of cultural difference- whether this is a result of Americanization or global capitalism. The west dominates the economic, technological, political
and knowledge resources and controls the levers of power of global sport.
According to Maguire, global sport is thus tied to the opening up of new markets, including that of labor, and the commodification of cultures (Maguire, 2008). As much as cultural globalization can be viewed as unifying and universalizing, it can also be seen as divisive and destructive of the local cultures. The globalization and unification of cultures has sparked anti- movements whose members wish to resist the processes of globalization (Maguire, 2008).
Over the past decades, globalization has had a massive impact on sport.
This is well illustrated by the example of soccer where an expanding international movement of athletes is changing the landscape of the game. The relationship between globalization and immigration of soccer players has been the focus of many studies that have considered the ways in which globalization has led to migration as well as the players involvement in such processes.
Globalization and sports migration has played a major aid in growing past country border, literally and figuratively. This relationship that exist between globalization and immigration of soccer players that Botelho and Agergaard (2011) refer to parallels that of basketball’s global expansion and the influence of the NBA. I believe that with the popularity of the NBA, this has opened the door and provided the opportunity for many foreign players to make a mark on the CBA, to play in this league, because they are former stars in the NBA and are among the most talented players in the world, coming from the American arena of competition, learning the grit, toughness, and competitiveness from American basketball.
Global sport is tied to the opening up of new markets, including that of labor, and the commodification of cultures through the importation of foreign players and cultures. Many researchers have delved into the historical development of various international sports leagues and how globalization has affected each sport over time, and in various countries. Other research has described the growth and popularity of basketball, the influence the NBA has impacted on different countries, and how the NBA attracts international talent.
Basketball humbly expanded internationally shortly after its founding and its first appearance in the Olympics. The first international basketball games were
played in the 1920s, before officially being added to the Olympics in 1936. Then the first men’s World Championship was played in Argentina in 1950, and the first women’s World Championship played in Chile in 1953 (https://www.olympic.org). Since then, basketball has international competitions at youth and professional levels. Every year, FIBA holds an international championship, as well as the Olympics occur every four years. Athletes have the opportunity to play basketball in their national leagues, go abroad and compete in another country’s league or represent their country in the World Championships and Olympics, of course if they are chosen to be on a team.
CBA Background
The CBA was created in 1995, and is now the top basketball league in China. Currently, it embodies 20 teams, with each team playing each of the other teams twice, a total of 38 games, during the regular season. For the playoffs, the top six teams automatically advance to the playoffs, while the next four teams play for the remaining two spots in the playoffs. The playoffs is structured in a tournament bracket style of 3 rounds (http://www.niubball.com).
Every CBA team, except the Bayi Rockets (the Chinese military-only team), are allowed have two non-Asian foreign players. The bottom-ranked five teams from the previous season are each permitted to sign a third Asian foreign player. The Asian foreign player must hold a valid passport from a registered FIBA Asia country and cannot have dual citizenship (http://www.niubball.com).The distinction between country of origin, citizenship, and the definition of a foreign player are critical in recruiting and competition. The term “Non-Asian" countries refer to all North American, South American, European, and Australian continental counties, but does not include African countries, in reference to a foreign player. For the third Asian player, he can come from any countries included in continental Asia and Africa. One major note is the fact that players from Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Macau are considered Chinese local players, not foreign players (https://basketball.realgm.com). Refer to Appendix C for a list of all foreign players who are currently in the CBA for the 2017-18 season.
The CBA is the only basketball league that enforces restrictions on the number of foreign players allowed on a team, the first of its kind in any
international professional basketball league. The implications this has on a team structure controls the number of player opportunities for foreign players in the CBA. The number of foreign players in the league could increase only if the number of teams also were to increase, however, the likelihood for an increase of foreign players per team is low.
CBA Rules for Foreign Players
There are strict playing rules for teams that have foreign players. The first rule is that non-Asian foreign players are allowed to play a combined six quarters per game. For instance, if Player A and Player B can each play three quarters, or Player A can play two quarters while Player B plays in all four quarters (http://www.niubball.com). Asian imports are under no playing time restrictions.
One exception to this rule is when a team is playing against the Bayi Rockets (who have no foreign players), that team can only play their non-Asian foreign players for a total of five quarters and only one non-Asian foreign player can play in the fourth quarter, including Asian foreign players (http://www.niubball.com).
The CBA is consider to be more of a “scorers’ league,” which means that scoring is more important part of the league and the teams place more value on players who can score the most, which is great for international players. Many international players become the “go-to” guy on their teams, the one who can and will score the points. The CBA is also a physical league because the rules are more lenient and not strictly enforced compared to the NBA. This league aims to please the fans and can be compared more to American street ball (friendly, non-professional competitions between local teams), as the structure and rules are not as stringent and careful as those in the NBA.
Although foreign players have a limited number of minutes and quarters they can play each game, players have ample opportunity to score and perform as they like. The freedom players may have to shine offensively can be a pull factor for some American players to come to China. Being one of 2, sometimes of 3, foreigners on a team, he will have plenty of time on the court and control of the ball.
The implications of a limit on the number of foreign players per a team and the amount of time each player can play limits the opportunities afforded foreign
players in the CBA. For some, this could deter players from going to the CBA, and for others, they may disregard this. In terms of the league as a whole, it can imply that the league wants to keep the league focused on the Chinese players, and not be overwhelmed with foreign players, as most of then are better basketball players than most of the Chinese players. Frick’s (2009) research concludes,
“perhaps surprisingly, the decreasing playing time that is now available to ``local players'' has not yet resulted in an increasing competitive balance of the national teams of countries importing players and those exporting players” (p. 88).
In contrast, international players are seen as benefiting everyone involved on the team as Agergaard’s (2017) research hinted that coaches’ perceptions have changed from “considering migrant athletes as barriers to domestic talent to migrant athletes becoming useful for enhancing local and national talent development.”
Challenges of Playing in China
Many foreign players face various challenges while playing overseas, specifically in China, which is culturally and socially different than most Western countries. Many American players who stay in China face many challenges, such as “cultural differences, language barrier, food, separation from friends and family” and career stability and future plans. Hsu (2014) lists that some American players deal with professional issues, such as: “fallout with team/owner, incompatibility with the Chinese lifestyle, signing with the highest bidder elsewhere, and so on.” According to Lam (2014), the CBA has numerous local, Chinese elements. Many teams are located in small, unknown cities throughout the vast Mainland. So, traveling and finding comfortable accommodations can sometimes be difficult on the foreign players. One of the biggest criticisms of the CBA is the terrible refereeing, because the referees tend to be both incompetent and show preferential treatment for the home teams (Lam, 2014).
Another challenging aspect of living abroad is the ability to navigate and balance life between the host country and one’s home. Schinke (2013) identified two major themes of acculturation through his focus group interviews:
(a) Navigating two world views which referred to acculturation as a fluid process where athletes navigated between cultural norms of the home
community and the host community, and
(b) Acculturation loads, which referred to whether immigrants and those in the host country shared acculturation (i.e., acculturation as a two-way process) or managed the load with or without support from others (i.e., acculturation as one-directional). (Schinke, 2013)
In addition to professional and cultural obstacles, many migrant athletes like to stay connected with family and friends back home. However, there are some players that like to get away from home and have his own personal space, detaching himself from the circumstances he left in his home country. Sometimes, this can be a push factor that motivates some athletes to leave their home country to get away from non-ideal circumstances, in search for a clean start. For some elite athletes, they want to go to another country for a place that provides a safe space for him to focus on his sport and develop his skills, while other may enjoy a simpler life away from the fame and mania of celebrity life. In contrast, some athletes are forced out of their country and their only option to continue to play basketball may be to go to another country, because they do not have any viable options in their home country. Later in this research, various typologies and theories of sports migration that are currently available in literature in other sections of this chapter will further be described. Although such challenges exist while playing in China, the CBA still draws in many foreign players to come play and any thrive in the Chinese basketball league, offering many benefits for foreign players.
Benefits of Playing in China
As a great overseas option for many American basketball players, the CBA displays great potential and opportunity, including career development, cultural exploration and financial gains that pull foreign players to China. Over the last decade the salary and living accommodations have greatly improved, which has drawn more American talent to the CBA. Many team owners now operate independently, meaning they are willing to invest more money for foreign talent, with many yearly salaries in the $1 million (USD) range. In 2010, Steve Francis and Stephon Marbury each signed the first million dollar contracts, thus forever
changing the landscape of basketball in China, illustrating the financial benefits.
According to Lam (2014), “the CBA has become NBA’s backyard” referring to how the CBA can compete with the NBA in opportunity and contract benefits.
While the United States has the most developed and competitive national basketball league and players in the world, Lam notes that China is “the biggest market in the world with over 300 million people who said they play or watch basketball in a population of 1.3 billion” (Lam, 2014). This number will continue to increase as more notable NBA players are attracted to the CBA and with the NBA expanding and bringing NBA games to China, and foreign basketball coaches implementing training camps for youth athletes to schools and privately.
China’s market size and yearly growth is currently greater than any other country and goes beyond its borders unlike any other. The CBA is positioning itself to laboring to become the premier international basketball league (Lam, 2014), especially with former NBA star, Yao Ming, installed as the new Commissioner in 2017. Ming proposes to bring NBA-style of organization and competition to China and develop and indoctrinate the Chinese owners and management, with the goal of becoming a bigger enterprise than the NBA itself.
China is the only league in modern-time with such great momentum, with exponential growth in the 21st century, which is of great benefit to owners and players alike. Foreign players, especially those who have played in the NBA, have the ability to be the “big fish in the little pond” with the CBA, instead of being a bench player on an NBA team, a “small fish in the big pond.” Similar to the Japanese baseball players who play in the American baseball league, Major League Baseball (MLB), American basketball players are able to bring profits to both China and US (Takahashi & Horne, 2006). They are able to bring their stardom, ability, and fans to China, to people who may already be familiar with them and their time in the NBA. Because so many people in China are more familiar with and excited about the NBA, many teams want a former NBA player on their team to bring some of their fans to watch CBA, and bring some of the money that comes along with that. As a results, owners are more than willing to pay more for such benefits and financial gains that a former NBA player brings, more fans, more ticket sales, and more TV airtime and contracts, and more endorsements.
In the 21st century, China’s sports market embodies growth and wealth,
with leagues looking for new ways to generate new business. With the determination and development of the CBA, there is great potential for foreign players to also benefit, which are more pull factors for foreign players.
Motivation Theory
In order to understand how migration theory can impact and be factored into an American player’s choice to migrate, it is important to first point out the theories behind motivations and migration motivational theories. According to the Oxford Dictionary, Motivation is defined as “a reason or reasons for acting or behaving in a particular way” (https://en.oxforddictionaries.com). Motivational theory has been thoroughly investigated and researched, with some focused on the factors that
In order to understand how migration theory can impact and be factored into an American player’s choice to migrate, it is important to first point out the theories behind motivations and migration motivational theories. According to the Oxford Dictionary, Motivation is defined as “a reason or reasons for acting or behaving in a particular way” (https://en.oxforddictionaries.com). Motivational theory has been thoroughly investigated and researched, with some focused on the factors that