This chapter gives a brief review of the literature that is relevant for developing this study. The first section talks about training and training needs. The second section examines theories related to training needs and the last section examines previous research that has been done on training.
An Overview of Training
Training refers to the planned effort by a company to facilitate employees‟ learning of job related competencies. These competencies include knowledge, skills, or behaviors that are critical for job performance (Noe, 2010). Blanchard and Thacker (2010) also defined training as the organized and systematic process of providing an opportunity to learn KSAs for current and future jobs.
Berge (2001) also defines training as learner‟s acquiring knowledge, skills, and attitudes that are useful to them immediately to improve performance on the job. Development is defined as according to Towers (1992) as the identification of those skills and knowledge needed by
employees in order for the organization to meet its strategic objectives and the management of those processes necessary to improve them. Employee development is crucial to the
implementation of organizational strategies and the development of firm performance. Therefore individuals are now the only source of sustainable competitive advantage.
Training often serves as a way to improve the quality and competency of employees. The improvement of training can be very beneficial to an organization due to the fact that it improves product and service quality and performance, and thus create more earning and value for its stakeholders. Craig (1996) states that organizations must comply with standards that apply to similar training programs in industry. Evaluation should be an integral part of workplace basic skills program. Training is rather important especially to the participants who achieve their program goals and improve their performance as a result often comments that they value these achievements because they meet personal goals as well as the company. Research also further demonstrates that those participants who are attracted to such training programs and who complete instruction are the ones who perceive training programs content to be relevant to their needs.
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Bashir, Memon and Rizvi (2011) states that every organization has to come up with new ways to increase effectiveness and efficiency in the business process. To remain competitive and sustainable the key is to invest in training. One of the constant trends in the training world is a consistent desire of training professionals to prove training‟s worth to the organization (Shushan, 2012). The continued need for individual and organizational development can be traced to numerous demands, including maintaining superiority in the marketplace, enhancing employee skills and knowledge, and increasing productivity. Training is one of the most pervasive methods for enhancing the productivity of individuals and communicating organizational goals to new personnel.
Importance of Training
Training, in the most simplistic definition, is an activity that changes people‟s behavior.
Increased productivity is often said to be the most important reason for training. But it is only one of the benefits. Training is essential not only to increase productivity but also to motivate and inspire workers by letting them know how important their jobs are and giving them all the information they need to perform those jobs (Anonymous, 1998). McNamara (2004) lists the following as general benefits from employee training:
• increased job satisfaction and morale
• increased motivation
• increased efficiencies in processes, resulting in financial gain
• increased capacity to adopt new technologies and methods
• increased innovation in strategies and products
• reduces employee turnover
This is only a partial listing of the many benefits that result from training. Training that is appropriate to the needs of an organization can add great value. Training is not always the answer to performance problems. Brandt Sakakeeny, training industry analyst for Solomon Smith Barney believes that training can be a great investment and training can be a waste of money (Rosner, 1999). Training is indeed a waste of money when the desired behavior does not occur. Gupta
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acknowledges that not all performance problems can be addressed by training. In many cases, non-training interventions are necessary (Gupta 1999). The key is to identify what problems can be attributed to training deficiencies and, once that is accomplished, to insure that the right training is implemented. Bartram and Gibson, in their Training Needs Analysis Toolkit agree. Without the right training, employees can be your [the organization‟s] biggest liability. Trained effectively, however, they can become your biggest asset (Bartram and Gibson, 2000). Rosner (1999) adds another ingredient for success – support after training. He states, “The most effective programs train workers in new behaviors and then train managers to support employees as they apply learning daily (Rosner, 1999, p.43). Support and endorsement from management can greatly enhance training results. One can conclude that training is not always the answer, and when it is the answer, it has to be the right training.Training is big business. In 1998, American companies spent $60 billion on training (Rosner, 1999).
Introduction to Training Needs
Some performance problems can be addressed by training. Some problems training can‟t fix. Training isn‟t the answer to a problem when it‟s used to cover up the symptoms (Rosner, 1999). A needs assessment avoids misdiagnosing a non-training problem as a training problem.
Some organizational and individual training needs are not as clearly defined as others. Even when training needs appear to be obvious, it is still necessary to choose appropriate methods that will meet them. Many training needs are not so obvious.
A training needs assessment is one of the most basic and common forms of assessment used by HRD professionals in the workplace (Gupta, 1999). Needs assessments help determine when training is the answer – and when it is not. Assessment insures that training programs have relevance to the people being trained. Gupta, in his book A Practical Guide to Needs Assessment, gives the following overview of the training needs assessment:
A needs assessment provides the information that is usually necessary for designing training programs. The basic purpose of a training needs assessment is twofold: to identify the knowledge and skills that people must possess in order to performeffectively on the job and to prescribe appropriate interventions that can close these gaps.
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There are two main reasons to conduct a training needs assessment: 1. it ensures that training programs are developed based on identified needs; and 2. it is relatively easy to implement (Gupta, 1999).
Investing in human resource and talent is very beneficial to an organization and strengthens organization advantage in this knowledge based society. To design an effective training program, DeSimone and Werner (2009) stated that trainers often follow the instructional system design (ISD) approach. This approach includes a four-phase approach that consist of assessing training needs, designing training programs, implementing training programs, and evaluating training programs.
For the purpose of this study only two phases will be studied.
Figure 2.1 Training and HRD Process Model. Adapted from Werner, J., DeSimone, R. (2009). Human Resource Development. Cengage Learning. U.S.A.
In today's rapidly changing business environment, capable workers are crucial to
organization's success in gaining and sustaining a competitive advantage. This must be achieved against a background of intensified competitions, incessant changes, and a power shift to the
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customer collaborations across organizational and geographical boundaries, and a need to maintain high level of talent. Edens and Bell (2003) stated that it is also important for an organization not to view training as a one off investment and solution. Training should be about more than simply
„„teaching‟‟ staff new skills or guiding them on how to do things „„better.‟‟ Instead if training is seen as an ongoing process with set goals and outcomes, which are monitored, refreshed and enhanced, it can bring a continued and long-term benefit to a business. The continued need for individual and organizational development can be traced to numerous demands, including maintaining superiority in the marketplace, enhancing employee skills and knowledge, and increasing productivity. Training is one of the most pervasive methods for enhancing the productivity of individuals and communicating organizational goals to new personnel.
According to Blanchard and Thacker (2010), Training need is the gap between what employees are required to know to perform their job and what they actually know. Miller and Osinski (2002) further describe it as a crucial activity for the training and development function.
According to Denby (2010), training can be an extremely powerful and cost effective investment by an organization, but only if it is implemented to match and complement the business‟s needs and objectives. It can help to expand the scope of available skills within the workforce as well as improve on existing expertise, all with the goal of improving the business‟s efficiency and effectiveness. And enhancing the capabilities of the team can even support retention, as staff feel empowered and invested in, and better equipped to deal with their daily activities. Holmes (1999) further stated that it is important that any investment in training is underpinned by a clear view of what the organization‟s training needs are. Many businesses face the prospect of wasting valuable training budget because they do not know how to accurately identify what their internal needs are, and thus cannot design the most suitable training and enhancement programme.
The purpose of a training need is to identify performance requirements or needs within an organization in order to help direct resources to the areas of greatest need, those that closely relate to fulfilling the organizational goals and objectives, improving productivity and providing quality products and services. The training need is the first step in the establishment of a training and development Program. It is used as the foundation for determining instructional objectives, the selection and design of instructional programs, the implementation of the programs and the
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evaluation of the training provided. These processes form a continuous cycle which always begins with a needs assessment (Miller & Osinski, 2002).
The goal of a training need is to determine whether a training need exists, who is exists for, and for what tasks training is needed. In order for organizations to know whether training is needed three types of analysis need to be considered, namely organizational analysis, task analysis and person analysis. Training Need is utilized to identify what training workshops or activities should be provided to employees to improve their work productivity. Focus should be placed on needs as opposed to desires (Tollison, 1992).
Organizational Analysis
Organizational analysis involves identifying whether training supports the company‟s strategic direction; whether managers, peers, and employees support training activity; and what training resources are available (Noe, 2010). Brown (2002) further stated that organizational analysis examines where training is needed and under what conditions the training will be conducted. It identifies the knowledge, skills and abilities that employees will need for the future as the organization and their jobs evolve or change.
Through organizational analysis, data are collected by considering such items as
absenteeism, safety incidents, lost workdays, turnover rates, grievances, customer complaints or other performance problems. These data can then be evaluated to indicate where training could improve performance. The organizational analysis phase also should plan for workplace changes, such as skills needed in the future, workforce demographics, and evolving laws and regulations (Brown, 2002). Future skills understand how an organization may be changing and help to identify skill needed. For example, will new equipment be installed or new processes implemented? Will standards or regulations change? Will technology change? Will employees need communication and interpersonal skills to better work with other employees or in teams? Will cultural changes occur within the organization?
An organization's labor pool may change as much older people enter the workplace or as women or other minorities become more prominent. As the economy changes and operating costs adjust, the workplace may need to change. For example, becoming a global organization will
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require changes. Understanding the effects of such changes will help an organization better accommodate employees' needs while still meeting organizational needs.
Laws and regulations: Changes in safety and environmental regulations as well as adoption of other laws may dictate that an organization provide training in specific areas. For instance, employees who work with hazardous materials may need annual refresher training.
Task Analysis
Task analysis examines each job's knowledge and skills requirements and compares these requirements to employees' actual knowledge and skills. Any gaps indicate a training need.
Sources for collecting operations/task analysis data include job descriptions, standard operating procedures, job safety analyses/job hazard analyses, performance standards, review of literature and best practices, and on-site observation and questioning (Miller & Osinski, 2002).
According to Brown (2002), an effective task analysis identifies:
-Tasks that have to be performed;
-Conditions under which those tasks are to be performed;
-How often and when tasks are performed;
-Quantity and quality of performance required;
-Skills and knowledge required to perform tasks;
-Where and how these skills are best acquired.
Person Analysis
Goldstein and Irwin (1993) suggested that when doing person analysis, the focus should be on how well the staffs should execute their job, namely the evaluation of their performance. According to Anderson (1993), Person Analysis focus on two questions: Who need training? What kind of training is needed? In this level, self insight and analysis are assessed, using the critical incident technique and other techniques ().
Person analysis examines a worker and how s/he is performing the assigned job. An employee can be interviewed, questioned or tested to determine individual level of skill or knowledge. Data also can be collected from performance reviews.
Performance problems can be identified by looking at factors such as productivity, absenteeism, tardiness, accidents, grievances, customer complaints, and product quality and
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equipment repairs needed. When deficiencies are identified, training can be established to meet the individual employee's needs (Miller & Osinski, 2002).
The three levels of the needs analysis are interrelated and data need to be collected at all levels for the analysis to be effective. Based on the information gathered, management can identify training needs, establish learning objectives, and develop a training program that meets
organizational and employee needs.
Blanchard and Thacker (2010), states that employees motivation is goal directed and derived from both personal needs and decision processes used to satisfy those needs.
Needs Theories
A need as defined by Gupta (2007), stated that a need when addressed, contributes to achieving the desired learning or performance goal by closing the gaps between current condition and the desired condition. DeSimone and Werner (2009) further defined needs as deficiency states or imbalances, either physiological or psychological, that energizes and directs behavior. Henry Murray proposes that human beings experience a large number of needs, such as aggression, affiliation, autonomy, and achievement. Although needs are internal states, they can be influenced by forces in the environment. Noe (2010) stated that needs theories help to explain the value a person places on certain outcomes. A need is therefore define as a deficiency that a person is experiencing at any point in time. A need motivates a person to behave in a manner to satisfy the deficiency.
Blanchard and Thacker (2010), states that understanding a person‟s needs help the
individual understand his behavior. From Maslow‟s early work, Alderfer (1969) developed a need theory on motivation called the ERG theory. ERG represents the three basic needs of the theory:
existence, relatedness, and growth. Existence needs are immediate needs required to sustain life, (need for food, shelter, and the need for some security in the future for a safe and healthy life.
Relatedness needs reflect people‟s need to be valued and accepted by others. Interpersonal membership and group membership (work, family, friends, etc.) acts to satisfy these needs.
Growth needs include feeling of self worth and competency and achieving our potential.
Recognition, accomplishment, challenging opportunities, and feeling of fulfillment are outcomes that can satisfy needs.
16 Expectancy Theory
Noe (2010) mentioned another needs theory known as the expectancy theory. Expectancy suggests that a person‟s behavior is based on three factors: expectancy, instrumentality, and valence. Expectancy is said to be the link between trying to perform a behavior and actually performing that behavior very well. In the expectancy theory, a belief that performing a given behavior (e.g., attending a training program) is associated with a particular outcome is called instrumentality. Valence is the value that a person places on an outcome (e.g., how important it is to perform a better on the job. From a training perspective, expectancy theory suggests that learning is most likely to occur when employees believe in themselves and that they can learn the content of a training program; and learning is linked with outcomes such as better job performance, a salary increase, or peer recognition (instrumentality; and employees value these outcomes
(valence).
Figure 2.2 Expectancy theory of motivation. Blanchard, P., Thacker, J. (2010). Effective Training Systems and Strategies, and Practices. Pearson, New Jersey.
Blanchard and Thacker (2010) further states that people work to satisfy their needs.
Understanding the types and the strengths of employees needs is important in the training process.
It can help identify some of the poor performance and therefore determine training needs.
Understanding need is also important in designing a training programs and facilities. Trainers need to make sure that the environment and training methods- that is how the training is conducted and where it takes place-meet the trainee‟s physical relationship and growth needs.
17 Adult Learning Theory
The adult learning theory was developed out of the need for a specific theory of
understanding how adults learn. Educational psychologists, recognizing the limitations of formal education theories, developed andragogy, the theory of adult learning (Noe, 2010). Malcom Knowles is most frequently associated with adult learning theory. Knowle‟s model is based on several assumptions:
Table 2.1
Knowles’ Principles of Adult Learning
Principles of Adult
Learning Definition
Need to Know Adults need to know why they should learn something, meaning the reason they need to learn something or how it will benefit them.
Self-Concept Adults fight against others imposing their wills on them, but having been conditioned through the national schools system of a dependant learner, they need to be moved into a self-directed learner where they are responsible for their own learning and the direction it takes.
Role of Experience Adult‟s experience should be used in their new learning and the technique should include ways to include the adult‟s knowledge as a tool that they can draw upon and also provide engagement by acknowledge them for their experiences.
Readiness to Learn Adults seek out learning as a way to better with real life tasks and problems.
Orientation to Learning The new learning should clearly define how the new learning will apply to their life in some fashion.
Motivation to Learn Internal motivators are important than the external
motivators that adults may receive for more learning. These internal motivators can come in the form of increased job
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satisfaction, self-esteem, and quality of life.
Source: Fidishun, D. (2011). Andragogy and technology: Integrating adult learning theory as we teach with technology [Electronic version]. Retrieved December 2, from
http://www.mtsu.edu/~itconf/proceed00/fidishun.htm.
As an individual field, adult education should be perceived as a lifelong process, as adults need to gain new knowledge, skills, attitudes, and values in order to participate in a changing
As an individual field, adult education should be perceived as a lifelong process, as adults need to gain new knowledge, skills, attitudes, and values in order to participate in a changing