Mobile-assisted TBLT

With the advancement of mobile technologies and popularity of handheld devices, the use of mobile devices in language learning (mobile-assisted language learning, or MALL) has been widely accepted and explored during the past two decades. Several review articles on MALL have pointed out that the majority of MALL implementations took a more teacher-centered pedagogical approach (Burston, 2014a, 2014b; Kukulska-Hulme & Shield, 2008). However, considering the affordances that mobile devices could offer, such as portability and social interactivity, scholars have suggested that mobile devices should be used to support learner-centered and task-based learning (Burston, 2014a, 2014b). So far, only few studies have investigated the use of mobile devices from a task-based language learning approach. The following paragraphs described the studies that incorporated handheld devices to facilitate task-based language learning.

Liu et al. (2007; 2010)

Liu et al. (2007; 2010) developed a learning system, HELLO, which incorporated the use of context-aware 2D or QR code as well as augmented reality (AR) supported materials to facilitate language learning and enhance students' motivation. A task-based language learning approach was adopted to design a 4-week experiment. In the first two weeks, 20 undergraduate students were asked to launch a game “My Student Life” on their PDA phones. They were able to explore different spots on campus and get exposed to corresponding language learning materials, such as reading passages or short movies, without the constraints of time and space. In the other two weeks, students participated in context-aware language learning activities in which they walked around the campus, scanned 2D barcode, and interacted with virtual characters. Questionnaire was

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administered to understand the perceived usefulness, ease of use and students’ attitudes towards the system. The items on usefulness and use-friendliness were based on the technology acceptance model (TAM). The results indicated that most students considered the context-aware and immersive language learning experience useful and fulfilling. Students showed novelty in using PDA phones to learn anytime and anywhere.

The adoption of context-aware technology and virtual learning environment increased their motivation according to the descriptive statistics results.

Ogata et al. (2008)

Ogata et al. (2008) described a project in which overseas learners in Japan participated in a series of language learning tasks outside the classroom by using a mobile learning environment called LOCH. In the one-day field trip, participants used the handheld PDA to accomplish the assigned real-life tasks. For example, learners went to the local shops to ask for information or interacted with people on the streets using the target language. Through the LOCH system, the instructors could monitor learners’ locations and provide necessary help for learners to finish the tasks. After the field trip, learners gathered in the classroom to share what they had achieved and reflected on the language use. Questionnaire was employed to understand learners’

comments and their attitudes towards the experience and system. Overall, the participants showed positive attitudes towards adopting the system and considered the system helpful in applying what they had learned inside the classroom into real-life situations. It was suggested that learners needed more time to familiarize themselves with the system or any new technology tools in future studies.

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Tai (2012)

Without designing a system which might take a considerable amount of time and technical knowledge, Tai (2012) explored the built-in functions of mobile devices, focusing on the integration of mobile technologies and task-based pedagogical design.

In the study, a three-phase (pre-, main-, and post- task) framework was adopted. In the main task phase, 35 six-graders were put into 11 teams, and each team was asked to work on 6 tasks, such as spot-the-difference and problem-solving task, in various locations within a historical site in Taipei. The mobile devices were used as a communication platform, where participants not only received input, such as pictures or texts, but also produced output, including sending text messages or making voice calls to the instructors. Face-to-face interaction and collaboration among group members were required to accomplish the tasks. In order to investigate participants' attitudes toward the design and their improvement with regard to target vocabulary items and sentence structures, pre- and post- surveys and proficiency tests were administered. From the statistical results of the proficiency tests, participants made a significant progress in both vocabulary and grammar. The surveys showed that participants' attitude toward English learning in general and the design improved significantly, especially in the aspects of enjoyment, interests, efforts, and willingness to learn English. This study demonstrated an integration of task-based pedagogical orientation and the use of mobile devices, and advanced MALL research by focusing on the built-in functions provided by mobile devices. Consistent with previous studies, this study revealed the potential of technological use in promoting language learners' motivation and providing an authentic context for language use.

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The reviewed literature has demonstrated the beneficial effects that technologies might bring to language development under the adoption of TBLT framework, including more productive language output, increased intercultural competence, and enhanced motivation towards language learning. From the few studies that used mobile devices to support task-based language learning, it is revealed that the portability and flexible use afforded by mobile devices may create a more diverse, authentic, and motivating language learning environment. However, as noted by some researchers, the integration of technologies into TBLT does not guarantee successful language learning or development. A variety of factors, such as students’ online communication skills or online learning readiness (Hung et al., 2010), may come into play. Due to the complexity and variety of different technologies, more research is needed to examine how different technology influences the implementation of a task and advances students' learning or the field of TBLT. In addition, as argued by Norris (2009), longitudinal research which takes on a full TBLT program approach rather than adopts a single trial of tasks is needed to fully understand how technology and TBLT complements and enhances one another.

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