• 沒有找到結果。

Rice (1993) proposes a simple cycle governing consumer behavior. An example could be where Need= thirst; Action= get a glass of water; Satisfaction= no thirst.

This may hold the key to the popularity of motivation in marketing area.

Figure 2-4

Rice’s cycle of consumer behavior

Rice himself defines motivation as the mixture of wants, needs, and drives within the individual which seek gratification through the acquisition of some experience or object. In fact the prime objective of the marketer might be to persuade or convince consumers that the use of their product will satisfy a specific need.

It is observed, however, that every individual is unique, and marketing becomes need

action/behavior satisfaction

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totally individualistic. Thus it will be of value to exam areas of similarity and attempt to develop ideas about some of the ways in which individuals’ motivations are alike.

Rice classifies needs or motivations as being either unlearned (primary) or learned (secondary), and also as being positive or negative. Unlearned or primary motivation comprises the basic physiological drives for the sake of survival- hunger, thirst, sleep, etc. Learned motivation is in various ways, e.g. what we learn to gain approval of others, what we are taught to be acceptable by the society, and what we learn to avoid that will cause people to withdraw affection.

Motivations may also be viewed as being positive or negative. Positive motivations are those we seek to satisfy while the negatives are those we seek to avoid. Much of motivation theory is expressed in positive terms.

Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow (1987) hypothesizes that a satisfied need is no longer a motivator and that the hierarchy operates such that a person’s behavior will tend to be dominated by trying to satisfy the lowest unsatisfied need, i.e. physiological needs will tend to precede security, companionship or esteem needs; companionship will tend to precede esteem or self-actualization needs and so forth.

Figure 2-5

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

Self- actualization- the need to realize one’s potential by using all one’s talent.

Esteem- the need for self-respect and self-confidence. Respect, recognition and appreciation from others.

Companionship- the need for group membership, friendship, affection and acceptance of one’s peers.

Security- the need to have a degree of safety in one’s life, freedom from bodily harm or threat. This may also extend to safety of prized elements of lifestyle.

Physiological- basic to everyone are the needs for food, water, shelter, rest and sex.

Without fulfillment of these needs most persons are not motivated by higher needs.

Clearly we can associate certain products with appropriate levels of the hierarchy and so segment the market into large target populations, e.g. low fat butter with Physiological, insurance with Security, etc. It also offers the marketer the opportunity

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to offer the product as a solution to a problem or the satisfier of a need.

Expectancy Theory

Under Vroom’s (1995) approach, individuals are assumed to make rational decisions based on the importance of the outcome and their perception of the probability of that outcome. The relationship is presented as:

F = E × V Where F = motivation to behave;

E = expectation that the behavior will be followed by a particular outcome;

V= valence of the outcome.

Normally a number of different outcomes will be associated with a particular behavior.

The hypothesis is that we will behave in the way which we believe will give the most desired outcomes overall. The expectancy equation has to be summed across all of these outcomes so the formula becomes:

F= Σ(E × V)

Based on the expectancy theory, marketers can tackle the marketing problem in three ways:

1. increasing the perceived value of our product;

2. raising the expectancy of satisfaction;

3. doing both 1 and 2.

Two-Factor Theory

Herzberg (1959) develops the well-known two-factor theory of motivation. In this a distinction is drawn between:

1. “satisfaction” in the sense of a positive, conscious state of elation and 2. “satisfaction” as a neutral state reflecting an absence of negative sensations.

Herzberg classifies the positive satisfier as “motivators” while the neutral one as

“hygiene” factors. His studies suggest the following organizational implications:

Table 2-1

Herzberg’s two-factor theory

Hygiene factors Motivators

Company policy and administration Achievement

Supervision Recognition

Salary Work itself

Interpersonal relations Responsibility

Physical working conditions Advancement

The hygiene factors do not lead to motivation but only to no dissatisfaction;

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motivation is generated by the motivators. This may give an insight to the use of promotional tools as motivators or badges of achievement, e.g. offering incentives such as “achieve your sales target for a period and win a trip to exotic places”.

In marketing implications, this may give an insight to the use of promotional tools as motivators or badges of achievement, e.g. offering incentives such as

“achieve your sales target for a period and win a trip to exotic places”,

Motives for Food

Steptoe et al. (1995) summarize from literature factors governing food choice. At the general level, it has long been recognized that food availability and cultural factors are dominant in food selection. The system of provision, including food production and manufacture, marketing message delivery and sale, has also been shown to have a major impact on what people eat. In addition, access to supermarkets selling a variety of food more cheaply than local corner shops affects choice. The increasing trend of supermarkets located in the outskirts of towns has significant implications for those who do not have their own cars.

At the individual level, taste or sensory appeal, likes and dislikes, and sheer habit are all relevant. A growing interest in studying the attitudes and beliefs with healthy eating, for example, has been witnessed in recent years. Weight control is a major determinant of food choice for individuals concerned about their body weight. The growth in environmental awareness during the past few decades has led to concerns about the use of natural ingredients and environmentally friendly packaging. All these factors indicate that health is one of many considerations relevant to food choice.

Keane and Willetts (1994) indicate that food is also a self-referent part of the repertoire from which personal identity is forged. Changing one’s diet can effectively redefine the self. For example, eating differently from the rest of the family is common in adolescence as a way of demonstrating independence. Priorities change throughout the life-cycle. Popular concepts about gender also affect food choice (Ton Nu et al., 1996). Ideas that men need more food than women, despite differential energy expenditure and metabolic rates, are still pervasive. The idea that women should not eat too much fuels the slimming industry. Surrounded by images of thin, successful and beautiful models, women are constantly policing their own food intake.

Increasingly, consumers not only want food products to be of high sensory quality but also to deliver specific benefits in terms of health, safety, and environment quality. It is, therefore, a crucial question to almost every marketing oriented organization to understand what consumers value in their product category, and to effectively and efficiently translate these consumer needs into concrete product

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offerings. A more integrative model exists which can be used for the translation of consumer needs toward preferred product features: the Total Food Quality Model (Grunert et al., 1996), which not only focuses on linking customer quality judgments to physical product features, but also considers the factors that intervene between purchase behavior and quality expectation and experience judgments. These quality guidance models have tended to emphasize the sensory quality of foods and other benefits verifiable by the consumer.

Heuvel et al. (2007) introduce in their study the important so-called credence attributes, such as safety, environmental quality, and health are recognized as important food choice motivations by consumers. Credence attributes are different from search (e.g. price, size) and experience (e.g. taste, convenience) attributes in that their “true” values cannot be verified by the average consumer not even upon normal consumption of the food. This research project was performed on potatoes and tomatoes, and the result confirms that consumers’ credence motivations, particular those related to health, environmental friendliness, safety, and naturalness are important determinants of consumer quality perception in-store. Increasingly, these

“societal” considerations are a driving factor for consumer choice and a competitive weapon in food marketing. These societal considerations can be linked with specific purchase motivations, such as family well being, social relationships, enjoyment, and pleasure.

Convenience is also one of the factors that are increasingly important to consumers (Buckle et al., 2005). Goften (1995) distinguishes different stages in the consumption process: planning, shopping, storage and preparation of food, consumption itself, cleaning up and disposal items. Although the preparation stage is commonly regarded as most time and energy consuming, convenience has to be seen in the context of all the stages of the consumption experience. For example, a tendency to eat out may be driven by reluctance to clean up, rather than reluctance to cook.

When looking at food choice we cannot ignore the influence of the media. Keane and Willetts (1994) find that advertising aimed at children is a particular concern, with a major content of food or drink. Of these 75% are for products with a high sugar or fat content. Through the use of cartoon characters, media personalities can be effective in establishing consumer loyalty at a very young age. In the supermarket it is often difficult for a parent to resist the insistent demands of a child for a new food which they have seen on TV.

Consumer involvement is such an important concept in consumer marketing that is provides a basis for a motivational force, which can explain various behavioral outcomes of consumers, such as number and type of choice criteria, extensiveness of

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information search, length of decision-making process, variety-seeking behavior and brand switching. In particular, the routine buying situation, such as the weekly shop for groceries, has inevitably been regarded as a low involvement activity, characterized by negligible information search, little consideration in brand choice and ease of brand switching.

Reflecting this, consumers are now more discerning regarding the food they eat.

Effectiveness of company strategies depends on marketers’ understanding of the factors governing food choice.

Section 4 Global Breakfast Cereal Industry