The Relative and Absolute Disparity

The basic model of this hierarchical relationship is the same as that of expedient and ultimate, with “relative” replacing “expedient” whilst “absolute”

replacing “ultimate.” However, the specific issues differ.

While the expedient and ultimate hierarchical relationship discusses the internal relationship between the various Buddhist practices are relative and absolute dealing with the relationship between Buddhism and non-Buddhist spiritual systems. Examples of this relationship include Brahmanism (the predecessor of Hinduism), Confucianism, Taoism, and Christianity.

In the historical development of Buddhism, attitudes toward non-Buddhist faiths have changed over time. During the period of Sectarian Buddhism, Buddhism and other faiths (which were said to have been ninety-six at that time) engaged in a pointed conflict which might have involved the loss of life.

However, with Buddhism’s development into the Mahāyāna period, Buddhism softened its opposition to other systems.

In fact, Buddhism went further than simply softening its opposition towards other religions. It later gradually evolved a tolerant and adopting attitude by absorbing non-Buddhist philosophy with the view that it is “to Buddhism’s benefit.” In this way, Buddhism started to harmonize with

non-119. Zhiyi, The Basic Principles of Calming (śamatha) and Insight (vipaśyanā) Meditation, trans.Venerable Zhenguan.

Retrieved from http://www.bauswj.org/wp/wjonline/the-basic-principles-of-calming-samatha-and-insight-vipasyana-meditation-%E7%AB%A5%E8%92%99

%E6%AD%A2%E8%A7%80%EF%BC%88%E4%BA%A6%E5%90%8D%E5%

B0%8F%E6%AD%A2%E8%A7%80/ on 23 June 2019.

Buddhist systems. For example, Esoteric Buddhism which finally evolved from Mahāyāna Buddhism in India, was in fact “related to the assimilation between Hinduism [and Buddhism]...[with] many of its religious practices coming from Hinduism.”^120,121

Similarly, Buddhism harmonized with the local Bon religion after its dissemination into Tibet. In China, Buddhism also harmonized with local Confucian and Taoist belief systems. Academia has long reached a consensus on the validity of the above statements, which I shall not elaborate upon here.

One thing I would like to mention here is that the harmonized symbiosis between Buddhist and non-Buddhist systems exhibits a relative and absolute hierarchical relationship. In The Great Calming and Contemplation,¹²² the Buddho-Confucian relationship that Zhiyi discussed can serve as an excellent 120. 「與印度教的同化有關……密教的許多宗教實踐實際取自印度教。」-Ed.

121. Weiqun Yao, Introduction to Buddhist Studies (Beijing: Religious Culture Publishing House, 2003), 115-6.

122. 《摩訶止觀》-Ed.

Buddhism harmonizes with the local Bon religion after its spread to Tibet.

case to aid our understanding of the relative and absolute hierarchical relationship. Zhiyi wrote:

If sentient beings do not have the capability to transcend the mundane world [and] cannot accept the profound transformative teaching due to a weak basis of strength, then worldly medicines [i.e. teachings] should be given, such as those of Confucius and Duke Zhou, who formulated social orders and hierarchical orders, so seniors are respected and juniors loved, the world is stable and prosperous, etiquette and statues are observed and order prevails, which is beneficial to the [development of] precepts. Calming minds with joy and improving habits and customs is beneficial to [the development of] meditative concentration. The best of virtues, morality and essence of principle from emperors of the past would be beneficial to [the development of] wisdom. At the very beginning the world was primal chaos, and it was not an opportune time [for Buddhism] to emerge. Having capabilities akin to those in the border regions Buddhism would not prosper. I therefore send the three sages [i.e., Laozi, Confucius, Yan Hui] to educate [the people of] China.

Only by starting with proper etiquette and right action will [they be]

able to have faith in the Mahāyāna and Hīnayāna scriptures. If this can be done in China, then it can be done everywhere else. We first have to start with worldly teachings.^123,124

Here Zhiyi expresses a very important view of the worldly rules of Confucian ideology with its system of benevolence, righteousness, rites, and music as a support for Buddhism’s supramundane dharma(s) of precept, 123. 若眾生無出世機，根性薄弱，不堪深化，但授世藥，如孔丘姬旦制君臣，定

父子，故敬上愛下，世間大治，禮律節度，尊尊有序，此扶於戒也；樂以和 心，移風易俗，此扶於定；先王至德要道，此扶於慧。元古混沌，未宜出世；

邊表根性，不盛佛興，我遣三聖，化彼真丹，禮義前開，大小乘經然後可信。

真丹既然，十方亦爾，故前用世法授與之。-Ed.

124. T. 1911, 46: 78 c1-8, retrieved from CBETA.

meditation, and wisdom—the threefold training. He is further of the opinion that “only by starting with proper etiquette and right action”¹²⁵ can an inroad be provided for Buddhism’s successful dissemination into China, and so that “will [they be] able to have faith in the Mahāyāna and Hīnayāna scriptures.”¹²⁶

In this context, Confucianism led the way to Buddhist practices, providing the expedient means for the propagation of Buddhism. Hence, Confucianism and Buddhism, which initially was without the slightest connection, became an integrated whole.

In this whole, Confucianism and Buddhism are obviously not on equal terms. Buddhism is the goal, ultimate, and absolute, while Confucianism is a means, expedience, and relative. They were in a disparate relative and absolute relationship.

Zhiyi opined that this model of Buddhism in China having to realize its

“absolute” through Confucianism’s “relative” nature can be accomplished everywhere, and serves as the universal standard¹²⁷ for the application of the Dharma. He further analyzed Confucian worldly rules and Buddhism’s supramundane dharma(s) in this way:

What does the giving of worldly rules refer to? Just as a king would out of love lay thick cushions on the ground to spare his son the pain of falling from a height, likewise does a sage regard sentient beings who will take rebirth in the three lower realms, guiding them with the relative truths and virtuous worldly rules, so that they may avoid [the pains of] unfortunate rebirths. Subsequently, he gives the medicine of the Dharma. All ignorant ones are guided and taught a way out by sages descending to the level of the mundane during times when the Buddha was not in the world.¹²⁸

125. 「禮義前開」-Ed.

126. 「大小乘經然後可信」-Ed.

127. 「放之四海而皆準」-Ed.

128. 何謂用世間法施，譬如王子從高墮下，父王愛念，積以繒綿，於地接之，令 免苦痛；眾生亦爾，應墮三途，聖人愍念，以世善法，權接引之，令免惡趣。

然施法藥，凡愚本自不知，皆是聖人託跡同凡，出無佛世，誘誨童蒙。-Ed.

The Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra¹²⁹ says, “All non-Buddhist scriptures are the words of the Buddha, not those of non- Buddhists.” The Suvarṇaprabhāsauttamarājasūtra¹³⁰ states: “All virtuous teachings of the world [arise] due to this Sūtra. If [one] deeply understands the worldly rules, [they will see] it as the Dharma; why is that so?

Abiding by the ten virtues is equivalent to observing the five precepts;

deeply understanding the five constant virtues and five elements is in essence the same as [understanding] the five precepts.”¹³¹

Benevolence, compassion, taking pity, and caring for others and non-harming them is the precept against killing. Righteousness, incorruptibility, and giving oneself to others is the precept against stealing. Marriage in accordance with propriety and regulation is the precept against sexual misconduct. Having wisdom, discretion and clarity, being upright in conduct, balanced and moral is the precept against intoxicants. To be trustworthy, truthful, loyal and sincere is the precept against lying. The Duke of Zhou and Confucius established these five constant virtues as the Dharma medicine for the world [in order to] cure people’s illnesses.¹³²

Likewise, the five elements parallel the five precepts: The precept against killing shields against fire; stealing, metal; sexual misconduct, water; lying, earth; and, intoxicants, fire.

Likewise, the five classics parallel the Five Precepts: the Classic

129. 《大經》-Ed.

130. 《光明》-Ed.

131. 《大經》云：一切世間外道經書皆是佛說，非外道說。《光明》云：一切世 間所有善論，皆因此經，若深識世法即是佛法，何以故？束於十善，即是五 戒，深知五常、五行，義亦似五戒。-Ed.

132. 仁慈矜養，不害於他，即不殺戒；義讓推廉，抽已惠彼，是不盜戒； 禮制規矩，

結髮成親，即不邪淫戒；智鑒明利，所為秉直，中當道理，即不飲酒戒；信 契實錄，誠節不欺，是不妄語戒，周孔立此五常，為世間法藥，救治人病。-Ed.

of Rites admonishes against flagrant celebrations thus the precept against intoxicants. The Book of Music harmonizes the mind, thus against sexual misconduct. The Book of Songs criticizes assassinations, thus against killing. The Book of Documents explains yielding in righteousness, thus against stealing. Finally, the Book of Changes is about the yin and yang, thus against lying. These and other wise worldly rules are in accordance with the ultimate [truth], and one can surpass them.¹³³

Clearly, in my opinion, the non-Buddhist scriptures such as the Bible and the Analects contain philosophy which is also the Dharma. Such broad-mindedness and wisdom!¹³⁴

In the three disparities of Buddhism’s pluralistic structure discussed above, all are founded upon humanism. For example, with respect to the good and best disparity, the Pure Land school believes that its practice is the “best” in the Age of Declining Dharma due to sentient beings’ capabilities being weak.

133. 又五行似五戒，不殺防木，不盜防金，不婬防水，不妄語防土，不飲酒防火。

又五經似五戒，《禮》明撙節，此防飲酒；《樂》和心，防婬；《詩》諷刺，

防殺；《尚書》明義讓，防盜；《易》測陰陽，防妄語，如是等世智之法，

精通其極，無能逾無能勝。-Ed.

134. 作為比較，這裡有必要提下天主教。雖然上世紀六○年代，一向「唯我獨尊、

排斥異己」的「天主教召開了一次大公會議，透過反省，教會發覺其他宗教 也有部分真理。因此，教會一改以往的態度，積極宣導宗教交談，……也開 始與其他的宗教合作」，但是天主教對其他宗教的態度依然還是高高在上，

不無鄙視：「其他宗教掌握部分真理，而完整的真理存在於天主教會內。」

參見袁廣義：《活出豐富的生命》，濟南：洪家樓天主堂，2005 年，頁 11-12。 看得出來，即使是改變了態度的天主教，也完全沒有佛教那種能充分認 同並將其他宗教的思想納入自家體系的寬廣胸懷。天主教與其他宗教無論如 何不能合為一個有等差關係的宗教共同體，但佛教卻能做到這一點。同時，

天主教即使承認其他宗教「掌握部分真理」，其他宗教與天主教之間也不存 在正文中所說的「好 ／最好」的等差關係， 因為天主教說其他宗教「掌握部 分真理」，只是意味著在天主教看來其他宗教是「部分好」，而不是「好」。

實際上，天主教之所以一改過去「唯我獨尊、排斥異己」的態度，而承認其 他宗教也「掌握部分真理」，完全是迫於當代「宗教對話」、「宗教對極化」

的客觀情勢，不得已而為之（否則它自己就難以運作），它骨子裡其實還是 一種排他性的宗教，與多元寬容的佛教不可同日而語。

With respect to the expedient and ultimate disparity, the Tiantai school establishes the expedient means of uniting three into one based on the different capabilities of the three vehicles of sentient beings (Sravaka, Pratyekabuddha, and Bodhisattva).

With respect to the relative and absolute disparity, Mahāyāna Buddhism establishes expedient means towards enlightenment by dispelling delusion and explaining reality according to the cultural inclination of the region where Buddhism spreads (such as the Chinese Confucian culture). All of these exemplify Buddhism’s humanistic thought, which I will not explore further for the sake of brevity.

5. “One Voice [of the Buddha]” and the “Perfect Voice [Suited for all Beings]”— The Unification and Pluralism of Buddhism

According to the understanding of Chinese Buddhism, “the doctrine is the words of the Buddha” and “Chan is the mind of the Buddha.”^135,136 All Dharma originates from the Buddha,¹³⁷ and is unified in him—thus the Buddha’s “one voice.” However, this one voice has a pluralistic expression, and can adapt to the needs of different sentient beings (i.e. Buddhism’s humanism as discussed earlier in this paper).

As such, the one voice becomes the Buddha’s perfect voice, the expression of both of which is simultaneously unified and pluralistic. Fazang in Rounded Sound in One Volume¹³⁸ gave the following two explanations of the two terms:

One explanation is that the Tathāgata can speak all disparate dharmas using one voice. For example, those who have strong greed, will hear the Tathāgata teaching the contemplation of impurity, and so forth [for other types of beings], thus it is named the perfect 135. 「教是佛語，禪是佛心」-Ed.

136. Translation adapted from A.C. Muller’s translation of the Axiom Mirror of the Three Teachings (Samga Gwigam 《 三 家 龜 鑑 》) by Hyujeong. Retrieved from http://www.acmuller.net/kor-bud/samga-gwigam-trans.html on 29 June 2019.-Ed.

137. However, Japanese Buddhism proposes that “Mahāyāna is not taught by Buddha.”

138. 《圓音章》-Ed.

voice. Therefore, the Avataṃsaka Sūtra says: “The Tathāgata in one article of speech demonstrates the boundless sea of scriptures.” The second explanation is that the Tathāgata speaks multiple tongues in one voice, i.e., each sentient being only hears the Tathāgata speaking in the being’s own language, as the Avataṃsaka Sūtra says: “All languages and grammars of sentient beings are spoken completely by [the Tathāgata’s] one voice.^139,140

The first example of Rounded Sound in One Volume tells of the Buddha speaking disparate teachings suited to sentient beings’ differing needs, thus they are able to obtain what they each require. The second example of the Avataṃsaka Sūtra speaks of the Buddha speaking only one teaching instead of disparate teachings, but when sentient beings hear the teaching, they feel it is exactly what they need, as if the Buddha taught specifically for that being. In fact, this has given us two interpretations of “The Buddha taught with one voice;

Sentient beings understood according to their own perspectives.”¹⁴¹

Here “the Buddha taught with one voice”¹⁴² refers to one voice while

“sentient beings understood according to their own perspectives”¹⁴³ is the perfect voice. No matter which of the two explanations we take, we come to the conclusion that they equate to each other. Fazang further describes the following three related explanations in Chinese Buddhism concerning the two terms:

There is an explanation that in one act of speech, the Tathāgata manifests all sentient beings’ speech, which they hear in their own language. It is not that the Tathāgata only spoke one sound, it is 139. 一謂如來能以一音演說一切差別之法，所謂貪欲多者，即聞如來說不淨觀，

如是等乃至一切，故名圓音，是故《華嚴》云：如來於一語言中，演說無邊 契經海；二謂如來一音能同一切差別言音，謂諸眾生各聞如來唯己語故，《華 嚴經》云：一切眾生語言法， 一言演說盡無餘。-Ed.

140. Fazang, Rounded Sound in One Volume (Nanjing: Jinling Scriptural Press), 1.

141. 「佛以一音演說法，眾生隨類各得解」-Ed.

142. 「佛以一音演說法」-Ed.

143. 「眾生隨類各得解」-Ed.

“The Buddha taught with one voice; Sentient beings understood according to their own perspectives.” A woodcut print on the “Turning of the Dharma Wheel” (one of eight junctures in the life of the Buddha), painted by renowned Taiwanese artist Lin Chih-hsin.

(Picture provided by FGS Buddha Museum)