This chapter introduces the research methods of the study. The content includes how this study is conducted and the process is elaborated in detail. It comprises the research approach, participant selection, research framework, data collection, data analysis, research procedure, and research quality.
Research Approach
For this study, a qualitative research approach was utilized. This type of method is used to give a rigorous and in-depth explanation of a specific topic or environment (Mertens, 2005).
Researchers in this field want to understand the way people interpret what happens to them in specific settings, what is the meaning they give to those experiences and how they control their behavior (Merriam, 2009). According to Merriam, some of the characteristics that define qualitative research approach are as follow (p. 13-16):
- Focus on meaning and understanding: focusing on the participants' own perspective, not being interfered with by the researcher of this study, the idea is to understand how the person interprets and how he or she understands the experiences they go through on specific environments or settings.
- Researcher as primary instrument: The researcher is the person who collected information through conversation, as well as non-verbal cues. The researcher is in charge of interpreting the information gathered, although since the researcher could have biases that could have an impact in the study, it is important to be able to recognize them.
- An inductive process: Researchers decide to utilize qualitative research approach due to the lack of information or studies previously made for a specific phenomenon. This does not mean the researcher starts the study with no information.
- Rich description: Instead of using numbers in order to explain what has been learnt for a specific phenomenon, the researcher uses words and pictures.
Based on the interest of the research and questions, it is intended to understand more deeply how expatriates from Latin-America working in a multicultural company deal with any national ingroup bias. Due to the scarcity of information and studies done about the national ingroup bias phenomenon and after considering the objectives of the study (Eshghi, 1985), for
16
this study, a qualitative analysis was conducted. Although a vast quantity of research has already been conducted regarding ingroup bias (Aglioti et al., 2019; Amodio et al., 2002;
Balliet et al., 2014; Bettencourt et al., 2001; Brownet et al., 1992; Cook et al., 2018; Dorrough et al., 2018; Finkle et al., 2012; Johnson et al., 2012), there is not enough information about ingroup bias regarding the nationality level.
Participant Selection
The technique for sampling is a purposeful sampling. The participants were purposefully selected in order to have the most accurate information for the study of national ingroup bias. This technique was selected because the people and the organizations selected offer useful information of the phenomenon of interest (Patton, 2015). For this study, the aim was to discover and better understand the topic of national ingroup bias in multicultural organizations, therefore, a sample that fits that criteria was selected (Merriam, 2009). There was a total of 18 participants for this study.
The type of purposeful sampling selected was snowball sampling. For this type of sampling, for this study some participants were found that fit the criteria for the study. The initial participants that were selected were individuals that the researcher already knew.
Individuals who would fit with the criteria of the participant selection. After doing so and having interviewed them, the researcher asked them to refer to more participants (Merriam, 2009). In table 3.1., the general information of the participants and organizations they belong to are presented, as well as the location of their workplace at the time of the interviews.
Table 3.1.
Organization and Participant Selection
Current Location
Company Pseudonym Age Nationality Role
Dominican
17
Table 3.1. (Continued) Current
Location
Company Pseudonym Age Nationality Role Carla 35 Venezuela Expatriate
Diego 62 Colombia Expatriate/
Manager
Soph 29 Colombia Expatriate
D Online Marketplace
Gerardo 28 Mexico Expatriate
Lucia 37 Colombia Expatriate
E Sportswear Manufacturer
Ariana 27 Mexico Expatriate
Monica 37 Mexico Expatriate
Juanita 55 Mexico Expatriate
Leonardo 32 Germany Observer
Nadia 34 Bolivia Expatriate
Juan Pablo 45 Panama Expatriate/
Manager
Sampling Criteria
All of the participants for this study need to be working in multicultural environments.
There are different criteria of selection for Latin-Americans, managers and coworkers. The selection criteria for coworkers are as follows:
18
• During the time the interview is conducted, they have a minimum of six months working in the company.
• They have the experience of working in a multicultural organization.
• Are not Latin American Expatriates.
The selection for Latin-American workers is as follows:
• During the time the interview is conducted, they have a minimum of six months working in the company.
• They have the experience of working in a multicultural organization.
• They were born in any country of Latin-America and have lived there until they finished at least high school.
• Regularly have any form of interaction with people from the same nationality.
• There is more than one person from the same nationality of the interviewee in the company where the participant is working.
*All managers should belong to at least two groups, for example, Latin American expatriates (ingroup) or coworkers (outgroup). Be that as it may, coworkers could not belong to the groups of Latin Americans or vice versa. Figure 3.1. Shows the participants’
types.
Figure 3.1. Interview participants’ types.
Organization Selection
The organizations selected for the research had to follow criteria related to the diversity of their employees. They had to be multinational organizations, meaning that the workforce had employees from different countries interacting in a regular basis. Since this research focuses on Latin Americans, the company had to have employees from countries of Latin America.
19
The first company is a warehouse club store (Company A). Founded in 1993, this company is a warehouse club store located in Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic. The organization is a retail model that focuses on the sale of global merchandise as well as local.
Being the largest of its kind in Central America, Colombia and the Caribbean, it has more than 3 million client members. The organization counts with five stores in Dominican Republic.
The company’s goal is to expand in the continuous growing markets and wants to differentiate itself from its competitors by focusing on the shopping experience of its clients. Being an international company with stores in different countries, this company focuses on creating a strong organizational culture. This culture is implemented in all the employees of all the organization and stores around Latin America. According to the organization, when the employees have already acquired the company’s culture, it would be easier for them to move around to other locations and familiarize rapidly. The store selected for the research has a large quantity of Venezuelan and Haitian employees.
The second company is a funeral Home Establishment (Company B). This organization is located in the capital of Dominican Republic, Santo Domingo and was founded in 2003. It is a business that provides wake and burial services. Cremation services for the deceased, and funeral and wake services for their families or close friends. These services may include preparing the wake and funeral, and providing a burning chapel for the funeral. It is the only funeral home in Dominican Republic that provides a complete service. Meaning that they offer wake, a social gathering that is usually held before a funeral. Cremation, meaning the disposition of the diseased body in to ashes. And cemetery garden services, which is the maintenance of the area where the deceased is located. For this organization, the salespeople have to be very well trained. There is a great exposure to families who are dealing with a loss.
So, the main focus is to sensitize employees with thanatologists or programs to increase sympathy to know how to respond to individuals going through grieve. Going through the company’s website, there are not any sort of employee inclusion programs or trainings to promote cultural integration. Besides Dominican Republic employees, the company has employees from Colombia, Venezuela, Peru and Haiti.
The third company is an architecture firm (Company C). The location of the selected organization for this research is the United States in Portland, Oregon. It was founded in 1983 and it has other locations in different states, all in the United States. The staff members of the organization are mainly architects with the support of other staff that help them do their job.
Focuses on the design and the construction process, as well as the contracting and interior
20
decorating. The company has more than 360 employees, from countries all over the world.
Latin American employees are from Colombia, Argentina, Mexico and Chile. The main focus of this organization is to provide an atmosphere that is relaxed and promotes communication.
Online Marketplace (Company D)
Located in the hospitality business, this organization provides a facility for people around the world to rent out residences as tourist accommodations. Since its foundation in 2008, it has made home sharing easier and more accessible to everyone in more than 150 countries. It has around 6,300 employees with 400 in Portland, the location selected for the research. With a total population of around 524,052, Portland has 24,277 immigrants (American Community Service, 2016). The organization has employees from countries like Mexico, Venezuela, Peru, Guatemala and Argentina. This organization has a strong focus on the prevention and action against discrimination and racism, so it is constantly trying to implement and promote an environment of belonging and inclusion.
Sportswear Manufacturer (Company E)
Founded in 1949, this company is a multinational corporation that manufactures sportswear;
from shoes, to clothing and accessories. This organization was founded in Europe, with its North American headquarters being in Portland, the location of the research. The organization has a total of 2,000 employees in Portland, with a very diverse workforce. This especially due to workers from the same company, coming from different countries. The organization is aware of its diversity and believes that in order for it to succeed, it’s important to benefit from that diversity and understand and listen to the different ideas, interest and strengths of the workforce. With that said, they actively try to implement different programs and trainings related to diversity and inclusion.
Research Framework
The purpose of this study is to explore national ingroup bias that could be presented in Latin-American expatriates as well as the strategies an organization may apply when facing this phenomenon. In figure 3.2., the research framework for the study is presented. It was created based on the purpose and research questions previously mentioned in chapter one.
Firstly, it is important to explore the experiences each participant has had in regards to national ingroup bias in the organization. Secondly, it examined the determinants of ingroup bias through interviews as well as from the theory of social identity. This theory states that
21
people tend to be motivated when they have a high level of self-esteem, and belonging to a group helps increase such identity (Tajfel & Turner, 1986). Thirdly, from an organizational level, this study explores the strategies used when facing the phenomenon of national ingroup bias.
Figure 3.2. Research framework
Data Collection
Studies utilizing qualitative research method, tend to collect data in various ways;
document analysis, observation, in-depth interviews, open-ended questions, focus group and surveys (Patton, 2015). For this study, the data was collected by in-depth interviews and document review.
Interview
In this qualitative study, an interview approach was used to explore participants’ past experiences that are not possible to be repeated (Merriam, 2009). The participants selected for this study are based in countries around the world; this is why for this study Skype was selected as a tool for the interviews. The methods of communication that are internet based, have been increasingly used for researchers’ methods of selection for interviews (Brown, Iacono &
Symonds, 2016). The usage of Skype or other video calling applications can actually increase rapport since the participant is able to choose the location, he or she might feel most comfortable; also, the participant can feel more at ease when the researcher is not physically present (Pratt & Yezierski, 2018).
The interviews were semi-structured with open-ended questions, so the interviewees can give as much information as they want for each question. Interview questions were developed based on the research framework and from literature review. A total of three sets of interview questions were developed for this research. The first one targeting Latin American expatriates, the second one for the coworkers, and the third one for the managers. When
22
interviewing managers, it was possible to also use the expatriates’ interviews or coworkers’
interviews. The reason for this is because managers could also be coworkers or expatriates. All the interviews were developed in Spanish and English, so the participants were able to decide which language they felt comfortable with. When the drafts of the interview questions were done, they were sent to be peer reviewed and then to the academic advisor for any needed modification. After the modifications were made, if needed, the researcher would conduct two interviews to further improve the questions. After this, the interviews were sent to experts in human resources located in Dominican Republic and the United States the to review for any last adjustments.
Before the interviews took place, an e-mail was sent to each participant in Spanish or English, depending on the language the interviewee felt more comfortable with. The e-mail contained the questions that would be asked for the interview. After the participants had read and agreed to the interview, a date and time were agreed upon to conduct it. The participants needed to sign a consent form to participate in the study. The form had a brief explanation of what the study would be about, and the responsibilities the researcher and the participant had towards each other in the process of the study. A copy of the signed consent form was kept by both the researcher of this study and the participants. When the interview took place, the conversations were recorded and scripted and the time for the interviews were settled depending on both the availability of the interviewer and interviewees.
Document Review
Merriam (2009) states that “Documents of all types can help the researcher uncover meaning, develop understanding, and discover insights relevant to the research problem”
(p.163). The data was gathered online; the research accessed the official internet site of each of the organizations targeted for the study in order to collect relevant information for this study.
Data Analysis
For data analysis, this is a process were data was transformed into findings (Patton, 2015). Data analysis was conducted at the same time the data was still being collected. Doing so, makes it easier for the researcher to have a more organized study and not be repetitious and overwhelming (Merriam, 2019).
The process of the data analysis began with identifying any segment of the research data collected that is relevant to the study. After conducting the interview, the interview data
23
was transcribed word by word into transcripts. Since in most Latin-American countries, Spanish is the mother tongue, the interviews were written in both Spanish and English and utilized to accommodate the interviewee preference. This study analyzed the transcripts by focusing on the research questions. The steps were: first, use the open coding techniques to summarize the important phrase of the interviewees’ opinion. According to Merriam (2009), jotting down the information from the transcript that is relevant for the study and being open to find anything that could help find the answer to the research questions, is called open coding (p. 178). Allocating codes to pieces of data is how the categories were constructed, this was the second step. A qualitative research software was used called Atlas.ti for the formulation and categorization of codes. Atlas.ti is a program with tools for support of understanding and interpreting qualitative data. After going through the transcript, the researcher went over the codes and categorized the comments and information that seems to go together. In figure 3.3., an example, of the coding process for this study can be seen. For this study, the researcher took notice of certain criteria proposed by Merriam (2009):
• Be responsive to the purpose of the research. That they are answering to the research questions.
• They should be exhaustive; all the information or data that the researcher thinks are relevant to the study, should be able to fit in a category.
• Be mutually exclusive; one unit of data has to fit in only one category.
• They should be sensitizing; a category should be able to be understood by a person who is not the researcher just by reading the name of the category.
24
Figure 3.3. Example of coding process by Atlas.ti
Research Procedure
In this section, the course of action for this study is discussed and described. The steps selected for the research procedure can be seen in figure 3.4. Each of the steps selected are explained here after.
25
1. Identify Research Direction
Firstly, the main focus of this study was to conduct a study related to national ingroup bias. The researcher had lived in different countries and encountered people from a vast variety of nationalities. There was an interest in knowing the adaptation of expatriates in different countries and how they accommodate to people with different cultures to them.
2. Review of the Literature
When there was a guidance and a direction of what the research would be about, the review of the literature started. An extensive literature review was conducted to get more knowledge about national ingroup bias in organizations with people with different nationalities.
By reviewing the previous literature, the researcher started noticing a gap in the literature and decided the topic for the study.
3. Decide Research Topic, Purpose and Questions
It was decided to focus on Latin-American expatriates and national ingroup bias. Due to the gap in the literature and through discussions with the researcher’s academic advisor, it was decided to conduct a qualitative study. The research purpose and research questions were developed. Further review of literature was required after the research question was selected.
4. Develop Research Framework
After the literature review was performed, as well as the research questions and purpose, the research framework was developed. It was essential that the research framework and the three research questions established for this study could complement each other.
5. Develop Interview Questions
The next step for the study was to create the interview questions based on the review of the literature and the research questions. It was vital that the research questions could align with the research questions and purpose. The research questions were evaluated by experts in order to ensure they are appropriate to the study and follow the theoretical framework.
6. Collect Data an Analysis
Both data collection and analysis were performed simultaneously in the study; as interviews took place and documentation was being reviewed, the data was analyzed in the
26
event any questions arose to modify the data collection. According to Merriam (2009) “There is almost always another person who could be interviewed, another document to be reviewed”
(p. 172-173). The data was collected through semi-structured interviews and document review.
For the data analysis, the researcher used open coding and categorization.
For the data analysis, the researcher used open coding and categorization.