This chapter was composed of research framework, research hypotheses, research sample, approach, procedure, pilot test, data collection and data analysis.
Research Framework
This framework was designed according to the research purpose and literature review.
The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship among well-being, social support, intercultural communication competence and serious leisure – travel. Therefore, there were an independent variable (serious leisure-travel), two moderators (social support and ICC-IR) and one dependent variable (well-being).
First, serious leisure has six characteristics which are perseverance, career, durable individual benefits, personal efforts, unique ethos and strong identification with the activity (Stebbins, 1982). Different literatures focused on different leisure activity. In this study, the researcher focused on overseas travel. Second, the social support was from families, friends and supervisors. Third, this study focused on overseas travel so ICC would be viewed as another moderator.
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Research Hypothesis
Based on the purpose of the study and the research questions, hypotheses were generated as in table 3.1 to explore the relationship among serious leisure-travel, well-being, social support and ICC.
Table 3.1.
Research Questions and Research Hypothesis of This Study Research Questions & Research Hypothesis
Q1: What is the relationship between serious leisure - travel and well-being?
H1: Serious leisure – travel positively related to well-being.
Serious Leisure-Travel
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H1-1: Perseverance is positively related to well-being.
H1-2: Career is positively related to well-being.
H1-3: Durable individual benefits are positively related to well-being.
H1-4: Personal efforts are positively related to well-being.
H1-5: Unique ethos is positively related to well-being.
H1-6: Strong identification is positively related to well-being.
Research Questions & Research Hypothesis
Q2: Does social support have significant moderating effect on the relationship between travel and well-being?
H2: Social support has positive moderating effect on the relationship between travel and well-being.
Q3: Does the ICC-IR have significant moderating effect on the relationship between travel and well-being?
H3: ICC-IR has positive moderating effect on the relationship between travel and well-being.
Research Sample
This study focuses on Taiwanese employees’ well-being so the population must have a full-time job at present. For testing ICC-IR, their travel experience must be abroad but the travel type (tourist group, independent travel or semi- independent travel) and length were not limited. The different travel types and length could stand for different levels of activity involvement which is for testing serious leisure – travel. Moreover, based on this study’s need to test if social support affect the well-being, social support resource is mainly considered with friends, families and supervisors.
Therefore, the population possesses the following conditions, (1) Taiwanese and have full time job now.
(2) Have overseas travel experience in the last one year.
(3) Meet with the defined range of social support resource (friends, families and supervisors).
Table3.1 (Continued)
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Research Instrument
The quantitative approach was adopted in this study. This questionnaire was divided into four scales: serious leisure-travel, social support, ICC-IR and well-being. These four scales were adopted from literatures and wildly used so that the measurement of validity meets the standard of content validity and Cronbach alpha value was used to test reliability. In the complete questionnaire, the researcher decided to conduct 5 point Likert scale in each scale because of study’s need.
The complete questionnaire was distributed to Taiwanese so that translation was needed.
The original scales of well-being, social support and ICC-IR were English version and the original statement of serious leisure characteristics was English, too. The researcher used expert review and peer review to do the translation and revise. Both two peers studied master degree, majoring in human resource development and were English majors as bachelor degree. Two experts have full-time working experience and intercultural experience, which were appropriate for this study. As to the experts and peers, the table 3.2 is shown to indicate the main background of them.
28 divided in an interval of five years. Education level began from junior high school to Ph.D.
Marital status included single, married and divorced/separated/other. In income part, the researcher used personal evaluation (low, medium, average and high) to define their income instead of number.
Using these demographic characteristics was for better understanding of the relationship among serious leisure-travel, social support, ICC-IR and well-being.
Well-being
Oxford Happiness Questionnaire (OHQ) was organized by Hills & Argyle (2002) , using 6 point Likert scale and the cronbach alpha value is 0.91. OHQ is widely adopted in many literatures to measure people’s well-being (Huang, 2006; Hsieh, 2012; Huang et al., 2011; Lin, 2000). OHQ includes 29 items and 12 out of 29 are negative worded items. This study also adopted this scale but with 5 point Likert scale to measure employees’ well-being. The table is shown below,
Table3.2 (Continued)
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Table 3.3.
Questions in OHQ
Question Items α
1. I don't feel particularly pleased with the way I am. (R) 2. I am intensely interested in other people.
3. I feel that life is very rewarding.
4. I have very warm feelings towards almost everyone.
5. I rarely wake up feeling rested. (R)
6. I am not particularly optimistic about the future. (R) 7. I find most things amusing.
8. I am always committed and involved.
9. Life is good.
10. I don't think that the world is a good place. (R) 11. I laugh a lot.
12. I am well satisfied about everything in my life.
13. I don't think I look attractive. (R)
14. There is a gap between what I would like to do and what I have done. (R) 15. I am very happy.
16. I find beauty in some things.
17. I always have a cheerful effect on others.
18. I can fit in everything I want to.
19. I feel that I am not especially in control of my life. (R) 20. I feel able to take anything on.
21. I feel fully mentally alert.
22. I often experience joy and elation.
23. I do not find it easy to make decisions. (R)
0.91
(Continued)
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24. I do not have a particular sense of meaning and purpose in my life. (R) 25. I feel I have a great deal of energy.
26. I usually have a good influence on events.
27. I do not have fun with other people. (R) 28. I don't feel particularly healthy. (R)
29. I do not have particularly happy memories of the past. (R)
Serious Leisure-Travel
Serious leisure has six characteristics (Stebbins, 1982). To design this scale which table 3.4 shows, the researcher referred to other related literatures whose leisure activities might be golf, riding bikes, role play windsurfing, dancing or being volunteers. In previous literatures, the items of each dimension were created according to the six characteristics and research’s needs. Most previous researchers used 5 point Likert scale. Here, the researcher also viewed previous literatures as reference and used travel as example.
Table 3.4.
Serious Leisure-Travel: Questions in 6 Dimensions
Dimension Question Items
Perseverance (3 items)
Even if the life is busy, I still try every means to travel.
Even if I have to spend much time and put much effort into searching information before travel, I still enjoy it.
Even if there are some other difficulties, I still want to travel.
Career (3 items)
Travel is already one part of my life.
I think travel could help me find my life goals.
If I can’t travel, I will feel life is boring.
Personal efforts (3 items)
To improve travel skills, I am willing to spend money buying related books or magazines.
During the travel, I become more capable of dealing with the problems.
To plan an ideal travel, I am willing to spend time and energy (Continued) Table3.3 (Continued)
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planning it.
Durable individual benefits
(3 items)
Through travel, I make more foreign friends.
Through travel, I obtain opportunities of self-fulfillment.
Through travel, I obtain more mental feedback such as identification or sense of achievement.
Strong identification with the activity (3 items)
I enjoy travel-related websites, blogs or programs.
I am willing to share my travel story with others.
I think travel is meaningful. No other leisure activities could replace it.
Dimension Question Items
Unique ethos (3 items)
Gathering with people loving travel makes me speak my mind.
I like to join activities with those who love travel.
After getting alone with those who love travel for a long time, we have similar values.
Social Support
In this study, social support was divided into three parts, including supervisors, families and friends. Supervisors’ items were adopted from Anderson et al. (2002) and the other two were from Zimet et al.(1988).
The original scale of supervisor’s part has 6 questions with cronbach alpha value 0.89 and 4 point Likert scale was used to measure. To meet this study’s need, the researcher chose 4 items out of 6 and conducts 5 point Likert scale. Besides, there are total 12 items in the scale of Zimet et al. (1988) which are classified into significant others, family and friends and the total cronbach alpha value is 0.88. The researcher deleted the 4 items of significant others and adopted 6 out of 8 to measure family and friends sections. The table 3.5 is shown below.
The original scale conducted 7 point Likert scale and here the researcher used 5 point Likert scale.
Table3.4 (Continued)
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Table 3.5.
Questions in 3 Dimensions of Social Support
Dimension Question Items α
Supervisors consisted of 20 items and six dimensions are behavioral flexibility, interaction relaxation, interactant respect, message skills, identity maintenance and interaction management. The original scale was measured by 5 point Likert scale and the complete scale showed Cronbach alpha value was 0.85.
Based on the need of this study, the researcher chose two dimensions to conduct, which
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were behavioral flexibility and interaction relaxation. Table 3.6 is shown to indicate questions of these two dimensions.
Table 3.6.
Questions in 2 Selected Dimensions of ICC
Dimension Question Items
Behavioral Flexibility (4 items)
I am afraid to express myself when interacting with people from different cultures.(R)
I am not always the person I appear to be when interacting with people from different cultures. (R)
I often act like a very different person when interacting with people from different cultures.
I find the best way to act is to be myself when interacting with people from different cultures.
Interaction Relaxation (5 items)
I find it is easy to talk with people from different cultures.
I find it is easy to get along with people from different cultures.
I always know how to initiate a conversation when interacting with people from different cultures.
I feel relaxed when interacting with people from different cultures.
I find it is easy to identify with my culturally different counterparts during our interaction.
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Research Procedure
This study followed this guideline to conduct the research. Throughout the whole process, related literature were reviewed to strongly support this study.
1. Discuss with adviser and develop the Topic 2. Search the background information 3. Review the literature
4. Design the framework 5. Develop the questionnaire
6. Conduct the pilot study of the final questionnaire 7. Revise the questionnaire
8. Data collection 9. Data analysis
10. Conclusion and suggestion
Data Collection
Convenience sampling and snowball sampling were conducted to collect questionnaires.
First, posting online questionnaires in different travel forums was performed from March to May in 2014. Glancing over blogs of those forums and send questionnaires to those bloggers who shared oversea travelling experience from 2013 to 2014. Travel forums included Taiwan backpacker forum and Bulletin Board System (BBS). Second, via friends’ help to send emails to the samples who met this study’s requirements. 340 copies were returned and after checking the validity, the researcher used 302 valid questionnaires out of 340(88%). All response questionnaires were confidential and completed by anonymity.
Pilot Test
Newly established questionnaire was reviewed content validity by experts and then conducted reliability analysis and item analysis to examine. Questionnaire of pilot test was composed of 73 items. The sample size of pilot test was 60 people. The researcher invited two experts to review and revised the adequacy and two peers to check English/Chinese translation and did back translation. The background of experts is shown in table 3.2 and
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peers are Taiwanese, English major in college and majored in human resource in graduate school. The result of expert and peer review is listed in the appendix B.
Independent Variable: Serious Leisure-Travel
Refer to table 3.7; the coefficient of Cronbach α is from 0 to 1. Higher α means higher reliability and in researches, α value has to be more than 0.7. There were 18 items within six dimensions of serious leisure-travel and the result of pilot study is shown in table3.8. The α values of three dimensions (personal efforts, durable individual benefits and identification) were lower than 0.7 and the others were higher than 0.7. However, the integral Cronbach α was 0.889 and to keep questionnaire integrity so all items were remained in the final questionnaire.
Table 3.7.
The Evaluation Standard Criteria of Cronbach α
The range of α Meaning
1.0 > α ≥ 0.9 Excellent
0.9 > α ≥ 0.8 Good
0.8 > α ≥ 0.7 Acceptable
0.7> α ≥ 0.6 Questionable
0.6> α ≥ 0.5 Poor
0.5 > α ≥ 0.0 Unacceptable
Note:
Adapted from “The Evaluation Standard Criteria of Cronbach α,” by Li, J. Q. 2011, SPSS PASW statistics analysis. Copyright 2011 by Chuan Hua Book Co.
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Table 3.8.
Reliability Analysis: Serious Leisure-Travel (N=60)
Dimension Number of Items Cronbach’s α
Serious leisure-travel 18 .889
Perseverance 3 .801
Career 3 .747
Personal efforts 3 .513
Durable individual benefits 3 .571
Strong identification with the activity 3 .447
Unique ethos 3 .820
Table 3.9 shows item analysis of serious leisure – travel and the sample was 60. The critical ratio (CR) of all items was significant with P value less than 0.01, which meant items could discriminate the two groups (high scores and low scores). Therefore, the researcher kept all items in the questionnaire.
Table 3.9.
Item Analysis of Serious Leisure-Travel (N=60)
Dimension Item t Value (CR)
Perseverance Even if the life is busy, I still try every means to travel.
3.321**
Even if I have to spend much time and put much effort into searching information before travel, I still enjoy it.
4.523***
Even if there are some other difficulties, I still want to travel.
2.882**
Career Travel is already one part of my life. 7.726***
I think travel could help me find my life goals. 7.218***
If I can’t travel, I will feel life is boring. 2.100*
Personal efforts
To improve travel skills, I am willing to spend money buying related books or magazines.
7.444***
(Continued)
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During the travel, I become more capable of dealing with the problems.
3.161**
To plan an ideal travel, I am willing to spend time and energy planning it.
6.482***
Durable individual benefits
Through travel, I make more foreign friends. 3.763***
Through travel, I obtain opportunities of self-fulfillment.
4.228***
Through travel, I obtain more mental feedback such as identification or sense of achievement.
2.753**
Strong identification activity
I enjoy travel-related websites, blogs or programs. 2.976**
I am willing to share my travel story with others. 2.750**
I think travel is meaningful. No other leisure activities could replace it.
6.721***
Unique ethos Gathering with people loving travel makes me speak my mind.
6.479***
I like to join activities with those who love travel. 4.107***
After getting alone with those who love travel for a long time, we have similar values.
5.002***
Notes:
The dimensions of serious leisure-travel include perseverance, career, personal efforts, durable individual benefits, strong identification with the activity and unique ethos.
*p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.
Dependent Variable: Well-being
There are 29 items in this section and the result of reliability analysis was shown in table3.10. The integral Cronbach α was 0.897 for this pilot study.
Table 3.10.
Reliability analysis: Well-being (N=60)
Dimension Number of Items Cronbach’s α
Well-being 29 .897
Table3.9 (Continued)
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In table 3.11, this study conducted item analysis to examine all items of well-being and the result showed one item was not significant (I am intensely interested in other people). The researcher kept this item because of questionnaire integrity.
Table 3.11.
Item Analysis of Well-being (N=60)
Dimension Item t Value (CR)
Well-being I don't feel particularly pleased with the way I am.
(R)
5.106***
I am intensely interested in other people. -3.024 I feel that life is very rewarding. 6.000***
I have very warm feelings towards almost everyone. 5.251***
I rarely wake up feeling rested. (R) 2.904**
I am not particularly optimistic about the future. (R) 6.924***
I find most things amusing. 4.620***
I am always committed and involved. 4.171***
Life is good. 4.834***
I don't think that the world is a good place. (R) 2.277*
I laugh a lot. 2.945**
I am well satisfied about everything in my life. 13.645***
I don't think I look attractive. (R) 2.904**
There is a gap between what I would like to do and what I have done. (R)
4.392***
I am very happy. 4.775***
I find beauty in some things. 1.701**
I always have a cheerful effect on others. 2.958**
I can fit in everything I want to. 3.229**
I feel that I am not especially in control of my life.
(R)
5.987***
I feel able to take anything on. 7.077***
I feel fully mentally alert. 3.396**
I often experience joy and elation. 4.125***
I do not find it easy to make decisions. (R) 5.530***
(Continued)
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I do not have a particular sense of meaning and purpose in my life. (R)
3.467**
I feel I have a great deal of energy. 6.363***
I usually have a good influence on events. 2.488*
I do not have fun with other people. (R) 5.223***
I don't feel particularly healthy. (R) 4.845***
I do not have particularly happy memories of the past. (R)
8.134***
Notes:
*p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.
Moderators: Social Support and ICC-IR
There were 9 items in social support, 4 items in ICC-Behavioral Flexibility (ICC-BF) and 5 items in ICC-IR. The result of pilot study was shown in table 3.12
Table 3.12.
Reliability analysis: Social Support, ICC-BF and ICC-IR (N=60)
Dimension Number of Items Cronbach’s α
Social Support 9 .665
Supervisors 3 .720
Families 3 .806
Friends 3 .817
ICC
ICC-Behavioral Flexibility 4 .303
ICC-Interaction Relaxation 5 .837
Notes:
The dimensions of social support include supervisors, families and friends
In social support, the Cronbach α value was 0.665 and all dimensions were higher than 0.7. Therefore, the researcher decided to remain all items. In ICC’s dimensions, the alpha value of behavioral flexibility was too low. These two items - “I often act like a very different person when interacting with people from different cultures” and “I find the best way to act is
Table 3.11 (Continued)
40
to be myself when interacting with people from different cultures” are positive worded items but people might be confused about the content of these two items. So the researcher decided to delete “behavioral flexibility”. Therefore, in the official questionnaire, only interaction relaxation was adopted.
Table 3.13 and table 3.14 showed item analysis of social support and ICC-IR. According to these two tables, the critical ratio (CR) of most items was significant with P value less than 0.01, which meant most items could discriminate the two groups (high scores and low scores).
Therefore, the researcher kept all items in the questionnaire.
Table 3.13.
Item Analysis of Social Support and ICC-IR (N=60)
Dimension Item t Value (CR)
Supervisors My supervisor is supportive when I have a work problem.
4.359***
I feel comfortable bringing up personal or family issues with my supervisors.
2.224*
My supervisor really cares about the effects that work demands have on my personal and family lives.
2.189*
Families My family really tries to help me. 2.461*
I get the emotional help and support I need from my family.
3.502**
I can talk about my problems with my family. 4.908***
Friends My friends really try to help me. 4.370***
I can count on my friends when things go wrong. 4.469***
I have friends with whom I can share my joys and sorrows.
5.210***
Notes:
The dimensions of social support include supervisors, families and friends
*p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.
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Table 3.14.
Item Analysis of ICC-IR (N=60)
Dimension Item t Value (CR)
ICC-IR I find it is easy to talk with people from different cultures.
8.543***
I find it is easy to get along with people from different cultures.
8.429***
I always know how to initiate a conversation when interacting with people from different cultures.
5.976***
I feel relaxed when interacting with people from different cultures
9.063***
I find it is easy to identify with my culturally different counterparts during our interaction.
6.187***
Notes:
ICC-IR = Intercultural communication competence- Interaction Relaxation.
*p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.
Data Analysis
This study used SPSS and the following statistics techniques to analyze the data.
Item Analysis (Independent Sample T test)
Independent sample T test was conducted in pilot test (N=60) and was conducted again to examine all items when all official questionnaires returned.
Descriptive Statistics
It was used to provide information of demographic variables of final data and report standard variance, percentage and mean of each variable.
Correlation
This analysis was conducted to check the relationship among independent variable (X=
serious leisure-travel), dependent variable (Y= well-being) and the moderators (M= social support and ICC).
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Hierarchical Regression
Hierarchical regression is one kind of multiple regressions and was used to explore whether or not each dependent variable (serious leisure-travel, social support and ICC) affects independent variable (well-being) and how strong it was. Also the moderating effect
Hierarchical regression is one kind of multiple regressions and was used to explore whether or not each dependent variable (serious leisure-travel, social support and ICC) affects independent variable (well-being) and how strong it was. Also the moderating effect