REVIEW OF LITERATURE - Cross-Cultural Communication and Adaptation Steps of Undergraduate Taiwa

This chapter presents relevant literature, such as definitions, concepts, theories or practices which help the researcher to explain cross-cultural communication and adaptation steps of undergraduate TaiwanICDF students. The chapter is divided into three main sections which are related to the variables of the topic. Within the first main section is described several definitions and their relationships about cross-cultural communication. The second section aims to explain definitions and it relationships about adaptation steps. In the last section is presented the main theories that the study followed.

Cross-cultural Communication Definition of Culture

According to Grimson (2000), culture is a controversial concept that through time has been defined by anthropologists as something that distinguishes one human being from another human being like a life style of living of a group of individuals, conduct patterns, values and its definitions, knowledge, beliefs, arts, laws, morals and customs. However, culture, also, has to deal with changes such as boundaries and mixtures, internal variations of behaviors, integration, and coherence among them.

In consequence, culture is share across subgroups in a society, and it comprises cognitive, intellectual, psychomotor, effective and rationale components (Vargas Hernández, 2007), which are described by Hofstede (2001) as cultural dimensions. He, Hofstede, developed five dimensions based on the cultural values for particular countries, in order to understand their culture (Cullen & Parboteeah, 2013; Hofstede, 2001, 1991):

1. Power distance: “expectations regarding equality among people.”

2. Uncertainty avoidance: “typical reactions to situations considered different and dangerous.”

3. Individualism: “relationship between individuals and the group in society.”

4. Masculinity: “expectations regarding gender roles.”

5. Long-term orientation: “basic orientation toward time.”

Channey and Martin (2007) defined three important dimensions of a culture, which are the following, see Figure 2.1:

1. Language: the way to create a relation with others while communicating similar values and beliefs.

2. Physical: is the environment in which people interact to each other and its cultural activities.

3. Psychological: is the sharing of knowledge, beliefs, and mental activities within a culture.

Figure 2.1. Dimensions of culture. Retrieved from “Intercultural business communication,”

by L. H. Chaney & J. S. Martin, 2007, p. 5. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.

The figure explains that in order to a culture exist, these three dimensions have to interact with each other; if one is missing there can be an incomplete interaction or misunderstandings while interacting. These dimensions contribute to each scenario a part of them so the culture scheme can be completed.

Definition of Inter-culture

Within the culture exists two very important terms; multi-culture and inter-culture. Multi-culture is considered by Moreira (2001), and Silva (2003, 2001) as the coexistence within different cultural background in a same social environment (as cited in Fleuri, 2003). On the other hand inter-culture is considered as the singularity and the irreplaceable characteristic of an individual within a social environment (Fleuri, 2003).

So, inter-culture takes place, as different from culture and multi-culture, when exist an approach to interchange information, ideas, thoughts, or feelings with someone, who comes from a cultural background different from yours (Samovar, Porter & McDaniel, 2011). In consequence, when two persons or even a group from different parts of the world get in contact both have to recognized that there is a presence of another culture, because of different languages, manners, thoughts, religion, race, and other differences.

Definition of Communication

Communication has different definitions. Following the definition in the previous section, Samovar, Porter & McDaniel (2009) defined it as “a dynamic process in which people attempt to share their internal states with other people through the use of symbols.”(p.16).

Rogers (1995) explained that communication takes place between unlike individuals, as a simple context. But communication not only encircles a person but it also involves process and environment.

Communication comes from the Latin communicationem, which is the noun of action from the past participle stem of communicare, which means to share or to divide out (Communication, n.d.). So, according to De Valenzuela (1992), communication is “any act by which one person gives to or receives from another person information about that person’s needs, desires, perceptions, knowledge or affective states. Communication might be intentional or unintentional and may involve conventional or unconventional signals, may take linguistic or non-linguistic forms, and may occur through spoken or other modes”.

The process of communication is very easy to understand when it is just applied in the same culture, and it involves sender, receiver, message, channel, response or feedback. The sender refers to the person or persons, who have the need to transmit something. The message is the verbal or nonverbal information that the sender wants to be transmitted via a channel.

The channel is the way by which the message is transmitted, such as oral conversation, a conference call, a telegram, among others. The receiver is the target of the sender, which means is the person, who the sender wants to transmit a message to. The response and feedback are different concepts, but one lead to another. The response is the way the receiver acts after decoding the message from the sender, and the feedback is how the message is effective to the receiver; but depending on it, the sender can modify or amplify it (Samovar et.at, 2011).

Cross-Cultural (Intercultural) Communication

Now that the concepts of culture and communication are expressed, many authors think that both concepts are interrelated with each other. To explain what that means, Smith (1966) explained that “Culture is a code we learned and shared, and learning and sharing require communication. Communication requires coding and symbols that must be learned and shared” (as cited in Chaney & Martin, 2007, p.1-2); as represented in Figure 2.1. Culture cannot be known without communication, and communication can only be understood with an understanding of the culture it supports (Jandt, 2000, p.22). Because of this closest relationship between culture and communication, the process of communication not only supports same culture interaction but different cultures, too.

Samovar et.al (2011) agreed that communication has a purpose, such as persuade, inform or entertain someone. Communication is used with an intention, and it is only worthy when interacting with someone; nonetheless, information processing, personality, social relations, habits, norms, rules, roles, networks, language and environment are native characteristics from an individual; therefore those factors play an important role while communicating.

In a context from the same culture, see Figure 2.2, communication is easier because the environment is the same, even with problems as noise, one can understand a person with the same language and culture, and this makes the communication effective. However, misunderstandings may take place, too, but not regarding cultural issues.

Figure 2.2. Communication process between two persons with a same cultural background.

On the other hand, the process in cross-cultural communication is quite the same, but in this is involved environment, language, gestures, perception, and the culture itself, making the process more complex, see Figure 2.3. Not everyone in a different culture has the same level in speaking a foreign language, or understanding a different culture.

Figure 2.3. Communication process between two persons with different cultural background.

Source 2: adapted from “The language barrier, solutions & its impact on HR policies,” [PorwerPoint slides] by A.W. Harzing, 2013.

Samovar et al. (2009) defined cross-cultural communication as the process by which people with different “cultural perceptions and symbol systems are different enough to alter the communication event.” However, its biggest problem is the cross-cultural miscommunication that occurs when the person from the second culture does not receive the intended message of the sender (Adler & Gundersen, 2007). In the intercultural communication process participates perception, patterns of cognition, verbal behaviors, non-verbal behaviors, and the influence of context (Samovar, et.al, 2011):

1. Perceptions: Mosby’s Medical Dictionary defines perception (2009) as “the conscious recognition and interpretation of sensory stimuli that serve as a basis for understanding, learning, and knowing or for motivation a particular action or reaction”. According to Rowland (1906) is defined as “the consciousness of particular

material things present to sense”. Giving these definitions, Samovar et.al (2009) explained that culture modifies what is seen, heard, tasted, and smelled.

2. Patterns of cognition: is the way on how a person resolves a problem, and the influence of the culture on the person affects the way to recognize and solve a problem. Nisbett (2003) found that “Northeast Asians, such as Chinese, Japanese, and Koreans, employ holistic thinking patterns, whereas Westerners use a linear cause-and-effect model” (as cited in Samovar et.al, 2011). Subsequently, Samovar et.al (2011) agreed that the patterns used in a culture might be a problem while interacting with another culture.

3. Verbal behaviors: as mention before, Jandt (2000) established that culture without communication cannot exist, and communication is present when the culture is understood. This means that communication and culture depend on each other, because if communication does not exist culture cannot be transmitted to future generations. Consequently, language also is part of the culture, in which is developed symbols in common within a culture to give meaning to objects, events, emotions, experiences, and places (Samovar et.al, 2011).

4. Non-verbal behaviors: as the verbal is the noisy part of a communication, non-verbal expressions are necessary in order to bring better meaning to words. Gestures, facial expressions, eye contact, posture and movement, touch, dress, silence, space and time, objects and artifacts form part of non-verbal behaviors. As each culture defines its own language code, also it does for non-verbal code culture (Samovar et.al, 2011).

5. Influence of context: culture modifies not only verbal and non-verbal behaviors, but context, too. This means that it modifies also the way of interaction in physical and social situations. While intercultural communication, it is necessary the awareness of it, in order to not disrespect any culture (Samovar et.al, 2011).

The combination of these elements from culture and communication creates a culture shock to foreigners, in this case to undergraduates TaiwanICDF students that come to Taiwan to study. The awareness about the language, the interchange of experiences, and culture are unperceived by the new scholars before coming to Taiwan. Once the students come to Taiwan, their concern is how to ask for something to eat, to drink, to wear, and how to communicate; however, this is not simple to these scholars because of the differences in language, even though they are concerned about the type of food, the behavior of the population, among others. At this point, culture shock takes place.

Oberg (1960) defined culture shock as the anxiety of people resulting from the uncertainty of what to do in a different culture. Pedersen (1994) conceptualized it as “the process of initial adjustment to an unfamiliar environment.” Samovar and Porter (2004), and, Chaney and Martin (2007), who have similar definitions, converged culture shock definition as the experienced trauma of not understanding the verbal and non-verbal communication of the host culture, its customs, and its value system. Even though culture shock is conceptualized and defined, the reaction is subjective and each person feels it in different ways, and tries to adapt in different ways, too. However, every expatriate is always aware about the feeling of being ridiculous, and what he or she knows about how to behave is not helping him or her in the new environment.

Oberg (1960) explained his concept of culture shock by developing a theory, which described the six negatives aspects of culture shock. These negative aspects are: “(1) strain resulting from the effort of psychological adaptation, (2) a sense of loss or deprivation referring to the removal of former friends, status, role, and/or possessions, (3) rejection by or rejection of the new culture, (4) confusion in the role definition, role expectations, feelings, and self-identity, (5) unexpected anxiety, disgust, indignation regarding cultural differences between the old and new ways, and (6) feeling of helplessness as a result of not coping well in the new environment.” (p. 2)

The process of communication takes a very important part within a culture.

Communication is the method by which population within a country interact with others.

However, the globalization and the foreign aid are pushing some changes within a culture.

These changes are making host culture interact closely with foreigner visitors, such as students, workers, travelers, etc. But the changes are not only for the host population but for the foreigners, who should adapt to and understand the new culture. Undergraduate students, as any other foreigner that spends a long time in another culture, suffer from culture shock, and language shock, but they can overcome those issues by opening their mind, and by becoming involved in the host culture.

Adaptation Steps Definition of Adaptation

Adaptation is a broad term that comprises culture shock, assimilation, adjustment, and acculturation (Begley, 1994; Kim, 1995, as cited in Chang, 2008). It also is understood as

changes from individual living in a foreign country caused by the demands of the environment (Berry, 1997). Hazuda, Stern and Hoffner (1988) defined it as “the process of adjusting and adapting to a new and different culture” (Chaney & Martin, 2007, p. 8).

Acculturation, according to Valencia and Johnson (2008), is the process by which individuals adapt to cultural environmental changes. For this reason, adaptation is “a complex and dynamic process, and an inevitable part of intercultural interactions” (Chang, 2008, p.8).

Graves (1967) developed the psychological acculturation term, which is the experienced changes because of the interaction with people from other cultures (as cited in Berry, 1990).

As both definitions are interrelated, for this study, the terms of adaptation and acculturation will be treated as similar definitions, which mean it will be referred as the psychological and physiological changes caused from living in a different cultural environment.

Intercultural Adaptation

Redfield, Linton, and Herskovits (1936, p.149) stated that “acculturation comprehends those phenomena which result when groups of individuals having different cultures come into continuous first-hand contact with subsequent changes in the original culture patterns of either or both groups” (as cited in Berry, 1997). Consequently, studies in “cross-cultural psychology has demonstrated links between cultural context and individual behavioral development” (Berry, 1997, p. 5). This means that the acceptance of a culture will determined the level of adaptation of the undergraduate TaiwanICDF students. Berry (1990; 1997) defined the acculturation strategies; assimilation, separation, integration and marginalization (Ward & Rana-Deuba, 1999; Sam, 2000; Pham & Harris, 2001; Chaney & Martin, 2007;

Jian, 2012), see Table 2.1 and Figure 2.4.

Table 2.1.

Definitions of the Dimensions of Acculturation

Dimension Definition

Assimilation Happens when the individual values more the new culture forgetting her or his own culture, and looks for constantly interaction with members of different cultural backgrounds.

Integration The individual interacts daily with other cultures without modifying and maintaining the own culture.

Marginalization or Deculturation

Happens when the individual loses its own culture but also does not acquire and has little interest on the host culture.

Separation The individual has less or none interaction with other cultures, because he or she puts more value to his or her own cultural background.

19 Figure 2.4. Acculturation strategies.

Source: Retrieved from “Immigration, acculturation, and adaptation” by John W. Berry, 1997, Apply Psychology: An International Review, 46(1), p. 10. Copyright 1977 by International Association of Applied Psychology.

The figure 2.4 integrates the degree of adaptation perceived by the foreigner population. The question “is it considered to be of value to maintain one’s identity and characteristics?” is referring to the degree that the foreigner is willing to change its identity and accept the host culture as its own. The second question “is it considered to be of value to maintain relationships with larger society?” refers to the degree of importance for a foreigner to maintain a relationship with the host culture and the facilities that the host population might give them.

Definition of Adaptation Steps

When expatriates enter to a new culture environment, they keep their own culture and keep acting as they were living in a place where their culture was the same (Noesjirwan &

Freestone, 1979). However, entering to a new culture environment, where customs, beliefs, laws, values, among others are different, will modify the way international population perceive things and, in consequence, their behavior; as explained in Table 2.1 and showed in Figure 2.4.

However, after leaving for some time in this new environment a certain strategy of acculturation will be follow depending on the view and desires of the individual (Chaney &

Martin, 2007), see Table 2.1 and Figure 2.4. Adler (1975) added that also the individual is more aware about the new culture and will try to develop skills and knowledge that will help him or her to move on. But, acculturation can be different depending on the individual level and population level, which involves ecological, cultural, social, and institutional aspects.

Miller-Keane Encyclopedia and Dictionary of Medicine, Nursing, and Allied Health (2003) state that psychological adaptations is “the ongoing process, anchored in the emotions and intellect, by which humans sustain in the mental and emotional states of being and in their interactions with their social and cultural environments”. Oxford Dictionaries (2014) defines steps as “a measure or action, especially one of a series taken in order to deal with or achieve a particular thing”, and Collins Dictionary (2014) define it as “one of sequence of separate consecutive stages in the progression towards some goal”.

Individuals act, think and perceive things differently, which means that “there are not standard formulas for overcoming culture shock” (Da Cunha, 1980) and get adapted easily.

According to Berry (1997) these individuals and groups apply different approaches to get adapted and accept the host culture. For taking some steps to adapt to a new place, it is important to take into account why and for how long the individuals will be interacting with the host culture (Berry 1997). Ho (1995) suggested that the level of adaptation to a new place depends on the age and that there is any sequence of steps to follow for getting adapted. This is also supported by Zapf (1991), who suggested that expatriates confronts different experiences and that they are giving a personal meaning; however this meaning will have a good or a bad impact on the expatriates, causing them disorientation, frustration or being afraid.

As mentioned before, those steps for getting adapted have to be influenced by the culture in the host country. Expatriates must get adapted to a new environment, such a population density, dietary changes, exposure to new diseases, loss of economic status or new job opportunities, new friends, new language acquisition, alteration of value systems, among

other deeper changes (Berry, 1997). Therefore, the steps to get adapted will vary depending on the different situations an individual might be passing through.

Berry (1997) found in others authors work that adaption in “older youth do often experience substantial problems, particularly during adolescence”. As this study is reviewing undergraduate students, this fact is really important to figure out which steps these students are taking to get adapted to their new environment. In adaptation steps process studies have found that females present more problems than males, and the level of education that these students bring with them will help them to take better decisions for a good adaptation.

As an example of the explanations about adaption steps, Anderson (1971) described the experience of 15 American scholars in India. All of them experienced culture shock, and problems to get adapted to their new environment. Therefore, they recorded their dreams in order to compare them and analyze them. She found that they passed through an “identity crisis that accompanies the mixed cultural affiliation which is a part of these processes of

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