Socio-cultural Theory and Second Language Learning

2.1 Socio-cultural Theory and Second Language Learning

Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory has become a prominent domain of inquiry for language teaching and learning and been widely applied by language teachers recently.

A key feature of socio-cultural theory is that language development for humans comes from social interaction. Vygotsky (1978) believes that social interaction can not only increase learners’ level of knowledge but also mediate learners’ thoughts and behaviors. Kublin et al. (1998) briefly explained Vygotsky’s idea and stated “learning as being embedded within social events and occurring as a child interacts with people, objects, and events in the environment" (p. 287). In the beginning of language learning process, teachers, being considered as experts, can control and guide learners in class. Gradually, learners internalize what teachers have taught and become independent in learning. Thus, teachers’ instruction in class plays an important role for second language acquisition. What teachers do to help students in class becomes an important area for second language educators and researchers to explore.

2.1.1 Zone of Proximal Development

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) is one of the core concepts in socio-cultural

theory, and it can provide an understanding of the role of assistance in students’

second language learning. Vygotsky (1978) defines ZPD as “the distance between the actual development level as determined by independent problem-solving and the level of potential development as determined by problem-solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers” ( p. 86). Some scholars agree with Vygotsky’s view of the needs for providing assistance for students’ learning. Wertsch (1979) and his colleagues reported that children could solve the complicated problems through interacting with their parents. Moreover, Lightbown and Spada (1999) indicated “L2 learners advance to higher levels of linguistic knowledge when they collaborate and interact with speakers of the second language who are more knowledgeable than they are” (p. 44). Thus, how experts, teachers in particular, support second language learners plays an important role in language learning. The challenge for teachers in assisting second language acquisition is to help students engage cognitively (i. e., voluntary attention and memory, problem-solving, meaning-making, critical thinking) in class (cited in VanPatten & Willams, 2006).

That is, supporting students’ cognitive engagement in language learning is a big challenge for most teachers. Due to this factor, investigating how teachers support students’ cognitive engagement becomes an important issue in second language acquisition research.

Some second language scholars have discussed that Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) is similar to Krashen’s theory of i+1 (Guerra, 1996;

Johnson, 1995; Kramsch, 1992; Richard-Amato, 1983; Schinke-Llano, 1993).

However, not all the scholars agree that Vygotsky’s ZPD and Krashen’s i+1 share the same characteristics in nature. Several scholars recently indicated these two theories are incommensurable (de Guerrero, 1996; Dunn & Lantolf, 1998; Kinginger, 2001, 2002). Lantolf (2005) clarified that the main difference between these two theories is

teacher’s roles in the process of language learning. Krashen, following Chomsky’s view of language acquisition, claimed that learners acquire language through Language Acquisition Device (LAD), which helps learners to process comprehensible information for achieving the next level of language learning (i+1). In Krashen’s view, children are endowed with the ability to acquire a language and what they need is comprehensible input. Therefore, teacher’s role in language learning is to provide comprehensible input as one-way input, and mutual linguistic interaction is not direct relevant to second language acquisition, as Krashen (1982) indicated “ learners theoretically possible to acquire language without ever talking” (p. 60). However, Vygotsky has different perspective from Krashen’s view about teacher’s role in language learning. For Vygotsky, learners acquire language through social interaction (e.g., social interaction between experts and novices; peer interaction). To activate ZPD for learning, negotiation between a teacher and a student is necessary so that students can engage in class cognitively. In addition, Ellis (2003) indicated interaction plays a significant role in language learning because it provides chances for learners to produce language, engage in communication, and receive feedback. For Vygotsky, the teacher has to take a part in students’ meaning negotiation process or guide students’ interaction to advance students’ language learning experience.

2.1.2 Scaffolding

Scaffolding, the other important concept of social-cultural theory, is also presented to provide an understanding of teachers’ role in assisting students’ second language learning. Scaffolding is a process which an expert assists novices to achieve a goal or solve a problem which novices could not achieve or solve alone (Woo, Bruner, &

Rose, 1976). In school settings, scaffolding is “what teachers say or do to enable children to complete complex mental tasks they could not complete without

assistance” (Pearson & Fielding, 1991, p.842). Scaffolding was first used by Vygotsky and Luria who focused on investigating how adults introduce children to cultural means (cited in van der Veer & Valsiner, 1991, p. 226). Bruner (1978) explained scaffolding as a mother’s verbal assistance for maintaining conversation with children and viewed it as a means for promoting language acquisition. According to Bruner (1978), the mother’s scaffolding behavior is characterized by five significant features:

“(a) reducing the complexity of the task, (b) getting the child’s attention and keeping it focused, (c) offering models, (d) extending the scope of the immediate situation, and (e) providing support so that the child moves forward and does not slip back”

(cited in Guerrero & Villamil, 2000, p.52).

In addition to mothers, some scholars indicated teachers can be experts who provide assistance for students to learn the target language. In addition, Gallimore and Tharp (1990) redefined several qualitatively means which are adopted by teachers to assist learners’ performance. The functions of each means are discussed as follows (Gallimore & Tharp, 1990, cited in Moll, 1992, p.178).

1. Modeling is the process of offering behavior for imitation.

2. Contingency management is the means of assisting performance by which rewards and punishment are arranged to follow behavior, depending on whether the behavior is desired or not.

3. Feedback occurs in interactive teaching and helps students to improve their accuracy of output.

4. Instructions are used primarily in two contexts: on matters of deportment and in assigning tasks. Instructing voice of the teacher becomes the self-instructing voices of the learner in the transition from apprentice to self-regulated performer.

5. Questioning explicitly calls for an active linguistic and cognitive response.

6. Cognitive structuring refers to the provision of a structure for thinking and acting.

There are two types of cognitive structuring which are the structures of explanation and the structures for cognitive activities. Teachers assist students to organize the raw of new materials coming along with different settings through cognitive structures. Moreover, cognitive structures organize content and functions and refer to like instances.

In addition to the scaffolding means, scaffolding functions were also identified.

Wertsch (1985) proposed six functions of scaffolding that are provided by teachers.

These functions include recruitment, reductions in degrees of freedom, direction maintenance, making critical features, frustration control, and demonstrations. The six functions of scaffolding are beyond the scope of this study and will not be further discussed in the following sections.