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2.5.1 The first orientations: sociodemographic variables and controlled variables– age, gender, education level, length of use, fan page membership, and scientific exposure to traditional media. In this framework, in addition to the set of structural, cultural, cognitive and motivational characteristics (McLeod, Kosicki, &
McLeod, 2002), socioeconomic status, age and gender are included in the first orientations which is the first O in the O-S-O-R model and are important predictors of people’s participation (Jung, Kim, & de Zúniga, 2011). For example, research has presented a positive relationship between people’s age and their participation, and has suggested that the relationship between gender and participation varies across different countries. In general, those with higher socioeconomic status tend to display higher media use, knowledge, efficacy and eventually participation (Jung, Kim, & de Zúniga, 2011). Besides, exposure stimulates interest and discussion, and can produce supplemental effects to participation (McLeod, Kosicki, & McLeod, 2002). In this study, age, gender, education level, the length of use, the number of fan pages people have joined, and their exposure are all included in the first orientations. These variables can affect the other dependent variables in this model, so they are residualized for all statistical tests of relationships. Therefore, this study focuses on the process of how communication variables, such as Facebook use, influence people’s scientific participation outcomes without influence of socio-demographic variables.
2.5.2 Stimulus: the relationship between scientific use of Facebook and scientific knowledge and self-efficacy.
Scientific knowledge. If scientists and governments wanted to involve the public in decision-making, the typical first step would be to embark on a mission to inform.
From the early 1970s, the US National Science Foundation uncovered the levels of
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people’s understanding of science through a survey of knowledge of scientific facts (Wilsdon & Willis, 2004).
Many studies indicated that those who are more cognitively sophisticated are more likely to engage in activities (McLeod, Scheufele and Moy, 1999). The positive relationships between communication tools, or media, and knowledge have been discussed at length. Traditional media, such as television and newspapers, has been viewed tools to close the knowledge gap between people and increase public knowledge (Eveland & Scheufele, 2000; Do & Kincaid, 2006; Vitak et al., 2011).
Besides the great amounts of information that it provides, the internet allows users not only to seek information at any time, but also to dig deeper into issues through the use of hyperlinks and search engines. However, the current knowledge gaps have not disappeared just because the audience no longer only receives content via television and newspaper. Any content that users are not interested in could possibly be skipped over by them (Eveland & Scheufele, 2000). Besides, the internet is a medium where individuals largely control their exposure to content. Those who are not interested in scientific issues are likely to not seek out related topics online (Kenski & Stroud, 2006). SNSs may be a better field for users to gain knowledge for the following reasons.
A lot of studies indicate that there is an association between SNSs and people’s knowledge (Pi, Chou, & Liao, 2013; Barker, Dozier, Weiss, & Borden, 2013). First, SNSs can allow users to search and collect information, and obtain useful professional expertise (Pi, Chou, & Liao, 2013). It is easier for users to seek information and provide resources to others (Barker, Dozier, Weiss, & Borden, 2013). Second, although for most users, SNSs are used for entertainment and passing the time, users are probably exposed to the information that is shared by their friends. They can view, share and
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follow up on those materials posted by others, and this is how SNSs provide opportunities for users to gain more knowledge about specific issues that they may not have been interested in originally (Barker, Dozier, Weiss, & Borden, 2013).
Numerous studies indicate substantial knowledge gain from media use.
Although most measures of factual knowledge are often too limited to capture the full picture of what audience members take away from media use, open-ended questions measuring the audience’s cognitive complexity might reflect both personal characteristics and patterns of media use (McLeod, Kosicki, & McLeod, 2002).
According to the statements, Hypothesis 1a is proposed:
H1a: Scientific use of Facebook will be positively related to the scientific knowledge.
Self-efficacy. Self-efficacy is an obvious motivator of people’s behavior.
Bandura (1995) defined perceived self-efficacy as “beliefs in one’s capability to organize and execute the courses of action required to manage prospective situations”
(p.2). Efficacy beliefs have a great impact on how people think, feel, motivate themselves and act. Bandura separated sources of efficacy beliefs into four types:
mastery experience, vicarious experience, social persuasion, and physiological and emotional states. Excluding subjective mastery experience and physiological and emotional states, mass media could provide the functions of vicarious experience and social persuasion. Through vicarious experiences, people see the success of those who are similar to themselves, and believe they have the ability to attain those achievements as well. Social persuasion means that people who are verbally persuaded that they possess the capabilities to master given activities are more likely to mobilize greater
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efforts and sustain them than if they harbor self-doubts and dwell on personal flaws when problems arise (Bandura, 1995).
Media effects on efficacy have been described in many previous studies.
Traditional media, for example television and radio, cultivated people’s levels of self-efficacy. Concerning media campaigns on television, those who had high levels of exposure had higher levels of self-efficacy (Agha, 2003). However, although watching TV and reading newspapers familiarizes some people with certain knowledge and makes them believe they can make some changes in society, such information no longer reaches the youngest target. Instead, young users turn to the Internet for information searching (Moeller, de Vreese, Esser, & Kunz, 2014). By using the Internet, people gain information and interact without the limitation of time and space (Moeller, de Vreese, Esser, & Kunz, 2014). The Internet also enables normal citizens to interact with public officials, and many websites are built as platforms to communicate specific issues and information (Kenski & Stroud, 2006). Moreover, diverse perspectives and personal opinions can be found easily on the Internet, and people express themselves according to their knowledge (Shen, Wang, Guo & Guo, 2009; Jung, Kim & de Zúniga, 2011). The Internet provides an avenue for users not only to exchange opinions and values but also to participate in activities while expending significantly less time, money, and physical efforts (Jung, Kim & de Zúniga, 2011). The more frequently users expressed their opinions through the Internet, the more they had a sense of efficacy (Wang, 2007). The accessibility of information and feeling of full mastery of information made people believe that they could make certain changes (Jung, Kim & de Zúniga, 2011).
However, since more knowledgeable individuals could possibly track down more information, the Internet may perpetuate knowledge gaps (Kenski & Stroud,
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2006). Without the limitation of space and time, users spend a significant portion of the day using SNSs. Sharing and talking online about something users have encountered and are interested in has become the standard way to deal with information. Moreover, in the comments, SNSs users can provide others with hyperlinks to more information about the subject. On SNSs, people can encounter various types of information and knowledge. As friends on SNSs share information about some specific issues they care about, people are exposed to information even if they originally may not be interested in it. With a great amount of knowledge, SNSs stimulate users’ perceptions that they are aware of public affairs, which encourages their efficacious feeling about public affairs related to science (Jung, Kim & de Zúniga, 2011; Pinkleton, Austin, & Fortman, 1998).
Besides, social media, with all the advantages of the Internet, provides chances to spark conversation between people with different interests. According to Moeller, de Vreese, Esser, & Kunz (2014), through SNSs, readers can share, comment and engage in debate about an article with minimal effort. Citizens’ discussions about science facilitates rational decisions while forming orientations and attitudes. The positive effects of scientific discussion and deliberation increase self-efficacy (Jung, Kim & de Zúniga, 2011).
In the case of Facebook, the functions such as posting, commenting, and event invites can involve users in information distribution, issue discussion and even event participation. In the light of the previous argument, Hypothesis 1b is proposed:
H1b: Scientific use of Facebook will be positively related to levels of self-efficacy.
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2.5.3 The second orientations: scientific knowledge and self-efficacy as mediator. The second O in the O-S-O-R model refers to what is likely to happen between the reception of a message and the response R (Shah et al., 2007), and consists of factors potentially mediating the relationship between stimulus and response (McLeod, Scheufele, & Moy, 1999). In this study, scientific knowledge and self-efficacy were treated as two important factors which might mediate the relationship between Facebook and public participation in science.
Scientific knowledge. Knowledge is a predictive of active participation in public
affairs (Jung, Kim & de Zúniga, 2011) and some empirical studies have shown that scientific knowledge is positively associated with public participation (Ho, Brossard,
& Scheufele, 2008). Previous studies indicated that information held a variety of behaviors and norms related with a democratic citizenry, and the sources of factual knowledge included textbook facts and surveillance facts (Jennings, 1996).
Informational media, such as news programs, can promote public participation by triggering citizens’ mental reasoning and elaboration of news events, which subsequently promotes individuals’ participation in public affairs. The communication process among citizens also influences people’s civic attitudes and behaviors by allowing them to exchange information, elaborate on problems facing the community and learn about opportunities to participate in civic activities. Besides, knowledge could possibly spur public participation through the feeling of efficacy (Jung, Kim & de Zúniga, 2011).
Self-efficacy. Previous studies indicated that self-efficacy can predict levels of
public participation (Jung, Kim & de Zúniga, 2011; Shah, et al., 2007). First, through the process of discussion and deliberation inherent in making a rational decision about scientific public affairs, orientations and attitudes that support public participation are
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formed. Self-efficacy, a feeling of confidence and self-qualification, makes people express communicative behavior (Jung, Kim & de Zúniga, 2011).
However, a high level of citizens’ sense of efficacy combined with low trust reduces their interest and involvement in public affairs, indicating that they were influenced by one-way communication which was different from two-way communication media forms (Shah et al., 2007). Second, the reason why those with higher levels of self-efficacy are likely to act is that people with higher levels of self-efficacy believe that others are affected more than themself by a given message.
The belief is called the third-person effect. People might exhibit this behavior because of their predicted influence on others of a given message (Pinkleton, Austin, & Fortman, 1998).
According to the aforementioned statement, Hypothesis 2a and 2b are proposed:
H2a: Scientific knowledge will be positively related to public participation in science.
H2b: Self-efficacy will be positively related to public participation in science.
2.6 One pattern in different samples. A significant amount of research has indicated that Facebook is positively related to public participation. For example, people with a Facebook account engage in more public activities than those without a Facebook account (Valenzuela, Arriagada, & Scherman, 2012). Users with the same interests and hobbies can discuss topics of interest, share personal expertise and ideas, and provide experience with solving problems to others on SNSs. SNSs such as Facebook provide the function of Group and Fan pages, which offer a specific space for users with common interests to generate discussions and share information. Users
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can easily and efficiently interact and share information with others once they join a group or like a Fan page (Pi, Chou, & Liao, 2013).
Furthermore, the Facebook fan page “Pansci.com” has been found to increase people’s public participation (Shih, 2016). Although previous studies have already indicated the positive relationship between Facebook and participation, they investigated only one survey. To understand more clearly the certain relationship between scientific use of Facebook, people’s scientific participation, and their level of efficacy, this study compares the users and non-users of a specific science-related Facebook page. “Pansci.com” users are defined as specific scientific group members in this study. Figure 1 indicates that how O-S-O-R model was applied in this study.
The Research Questions are as follows:
RQ1a: Will the relationship between scientific use of Facebook and scientific knowledge vary by different samples?
RQ1b: Will the relationship between scientific use of Facebook and levels of self-efficacy vary by different samples?
RQ2a: Will the relationship between scientific knowledge and public participation in science vary by different samples?
RQ2b: Will the relationship between self-efficacy and public participation in science vary by different samples?
RQ3a: Will scientific knowledge significantly mediate the relationship between scientific use of Facebook and public participation in science? Will the relationship vary by different samples?
RQ3b: Will self-efficacy significantly mediate the relationship between scientific use of Facebook and public participation in science? Will the relationship vary by different samples?
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“Pansci.com” users vs.
General users RQ 1a, RQ1b, RQ2a,
RQ2b, RQ3a, RQ3b
Demographics, Controlled
variables
Scientific Use of Facebook
Public Participation in
Science RQ3a
Self-efficacy
RQ3b H1b H2b
Orientations Stimulus Orientations 2 Response
H1a Scientific
Knowledge H2a
Figure 1. O-S-O-R model of public participation in science.
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Chapter 3. Method
Data
The analyses of this study were based on two datasets and they were collected by a project under the auspices of the Ministry of Science and Technology (Grant # 103-2511-S-004 -008 -MY2). One dataset is for specific Facebook users who use scientific Facebook fan page “Pansci.com”, and the other is for general Facebook users.
The first survey was oriented for specific Facebook users who use the scientific Facebook fan page “Pansci.com”. “Pansci.com” was first administered by Association of Digital Culture, Taiwan (ADCT) but is now an independent company. It is the biggest scientific website in Taiwan and currently over 370,000 Facebook users have liked its Facebook fan page. Pansci.com provides a forum where scientific researchers, scientific educators, science lovers and the general public can discuss scientific issues together.
“Pansci.com” clarifies and communicates scientific issues and developments in Taiwan and around the world. To get the public involved in science and make them understand more clearly about scientific issues, “Pansci.com” interprets scientific issues and developments in simple and relaxing ways, by video, animation, a short explanation and so on. Furthermore, “Pansci.com” also organizes various offline activities. The first survey collected data from an online survey platform Survey Monkey (http://www.surveymonkey.com), and through many distributive methods including well-known Taiwanese website PPT(telnet://ptt.cc), a sample size of N
=1,160 was collected. The survey was conducted from August to December 2014.
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The other analyses in this study for general Facebook users were based on data collected from an online survey platform Eastern Online (EOL) Corporation with a sample size of N = 800. It was conducted for 10 days from May 22 to 31, 2015. The sample of this study shared similar demographic characteristics with the overall Taiwanese population. The cooperation rate was 40 percent. The sample was based on a carefully constructed probability sample that minimized sampling and non-response biases.
Dependent variables
Public participation in science. In this study, to specifically assess the civic behaviors related to science, five survey questions about consumer behavior and civic behavior were applied. These five questions were taken from the report “Americans’
Actions to Limit Global Warming” (Leiserowitz, Maibach, Roser-Renouf, Feinberg,
& Rosenthal, 2014) published by Yale University and George Mason University. The report indicated that consumer behavior has become a way through which people express their values and concerns. Policies and actions of a company may be influenced by consumers’ choices. Furthermore, the report also pointed out that people express their values and concerns through their civic behavior, for example, writing a letter or email to related officials or donating money. The variables will be elaborated upon in chapter three.
Shih (2016) separated behaviors into two categories of information participation and public participation. In this paper, users’ public participation was needed to use variables about public participation . The variables concerning public participation in science of “Pansci.com” and general samples were measured an additive index of five items with a 5-point scale (1= never; 2=seldom; 3= sometimes; 4=usually; 5= always),
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asking respondents about their level of frequency with the following statements: (1)
“How often do you participate in scientific, technology related or environmental public hearings or seminars”; (2) “How often do you participate in programs related to environmental protection or ecological rehabilitation?”; (3) “How often do you donate to environmental groups, scientific media, animal protection groups or associated non- governmental institutions?”; (4) How often do you encourage or punish a company for the sake of environmental protection?; (5) “How often do you express your opinions about environmental protection issues by writing a letter, email or calling relevant government offices or representatives?” (“Pansci.com”: M =2.05, SD =.80, Cronbach’s alpha =.78; general: M = 1.93, SD =.72, Cronbach’s alpha
= .84).
Mediating variables
Scientific knowledge. Scientific knowledge is measured as an additive index of multiple choice quiz-like questions. The questions for “Pansci.com” users were (1) Which of the following is a key factor that enables an airplane to lift? (A: Air pressure beneath the sing is greater than that above the wing.); (2) A farmer thinks that the vegetables on her farm are not getting enough water. Her son suggests that they use water from the nearby ocean to water the vegetables. Is this a good idea? (C: No, because ocean water is too salty for plants grown on land.); (3) How do most fish get the oxygen they need to survive? (B: Using their gills, they take in oxygen that is dissolved in water.); (4) For which reason any people experience shortness of breath more quickly at the top of a mountain than along a seashore? (C: A lower percent of oxygen in the blood.); (5) Which is a better way to make sure whether a new medicine is valid? If 1000 volunteers want to join a scientist’s disease study, he should… (A:
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volunteers.); (6) As part of a laboratory experiment, five students measured the weight of the same leaf four times. They recorded 20 slightly different weights. All of the work was done carefully and correctly. Their goal was to be as accurate as possible and reduce error in the experiment to a minimum. Which of the following is the BEST method to report the weight of the leaf? (C: Average all of the weights that were recorded.). The questions were taken from Science and Engineering Indicators 2010, which is “first and foremost a volume of records comprising the major high-quality quantitative data on the U.S. and international science and engineering enterprises” (Lanzerotti., et al., 2010). Compared to the general sample, the
“Pansci.com” sample was composed of more people from STEM (science, technology, engineering, and math) fields who were assumed to have more scientific knowledge.
Therefore, to differentiate the knowledge of “Pansci.com” users, a more sophisticated battery of questions was employed. The survey for general users applied questions from the latest high-quality quantitative data.
For general users, the questions were from Science and Engineering Indicators
For general users, the questions were from Science and Engineering Indicators