Taiwan Musical Instruments overview

Taiwan's aboriginal Austronesian speaking population had not invented an indigenous form of writing or musical notation at time of initial colonization. Songs and melodies were handed down by way of cultural transmission until written and notation techniques were slowly developed throughout the Dutch and Japanese periods. As with many aspects of the of the Indigenous culture, the songs, melody’s and musical instruments they use are closely linked to

21 aspects of traditional life including hunting, battle, agriculture, fishing, wedding ceremonies, worship ceremonies, tribal legends, prayers for bountiful harvests, celebration of harvests, joy, morning and life stages such as birth and death.

There are limited resources describing music of the Formosan Aborigines in Taiwan prior to the arrival of Dutch missionaries who developed a Romanized writing system for the aboriginal languages and taught in church schools. One important description of the tribes way of life from the period before the Dutch entrance is found in Shen Ying's ‘Record of the environment in the coastal area’ (Linhai shuitu yiwuzhi) written in the Three Kingdoms era (220 A.D-280AD), The

‘Dong ji’ (‘Eastern barbarians’) section of the encyclopaedia contains a description of the music of the eastern barbarians:

“For a gathering, a big hollow trunk, ten zhang [23 cm] or longer, is set in the middle of the garden.

It is struck with big pestles. The drum-like sound can be heard from four or five miles away. People go for the gathering when they hear the sound”. (Sadie, 2001)

Chinese records of Taiwan were written in 1603 by Chen-Di 陳第, a member of Ming admiral Shen-You-Rong's mission around Taiwan and Penghu. In the report "Eastern Barbarian Lands"

(Dong Fan Ji), Chen Di observed and documented cultural activities and mentions dance songs, drums and the Jews harp as musical instruments being in use amongst the indigenous groups of Taiwan (Di, 1603).

In the 19-20th centuries many early records of the music of Taiwan’s aboriginal population were documented by European foreign missionaries and officials who aid in giving prior knowledge to current research. These reports can be very contradictory and range from ‘pleasant sounds’ to

‘very unpleasing’ as reported by John D Ford near the end of the 20th century in his book

"Formosa: An American cruiser in the East, travels and studies in the far East”. He noted the tribe members will often sing, but they have no musical instruments for accompaniment, he considered the timbre of their voices as “harsh, unpleasing, and discordant, but the scene is enjoyable because it is novel, quaint, and weird” (Ford, 1898). An equally partisan view of

22 aboriginal music was offered by British government administer William Pickering, writing near the beginning of Japanese occupation.

“They are fond of music, listening with evident pleasure to the efforts of the foreigners, either instrumental or vocal, and they will return the compliment by executing one of their pathetic chants, in a minor key, accompanying their efforts with a weird war dance, making music upon a bamboo Jew's harp, or a flageolet breathed into from one nostril. (Pickering, 1898, p. 73)

Further confirmation of the musical instruments existing at the time was given by Elizabeth Ritchie who was married to Reverend Hugh Ritchie before the two of them left England on July 15, 1867, to begin work with the English Presbyterian Mission in south Formosa (Messenger, 1867). Mrs Ritchie also accompanied her husband on his travels to inland mission stations and taught Formosan converts to read, on one of their travels she noted the following.

“When Mr. Ritchie was away at Lai-sia, the Toa-sia brethren brought out some strange musical instruments and gave me quite a treat. They played their wild mountain airs, and the women sang so sweetly; their voices are more harmonious than those of the Bak-sa folks. They have never ventured to show these to any of the pastors, lest they might be blamed for using remnants of idolatry. I had them all brought out of their hiding-places again for Mr. Ritchie to hear. Two of them, if I remember aright, are played with a bow, and one with the fingers -- long narrow instruments with several strings;

another is played with two little hammers; and for the playing of yet another something is slipped on the thumb and forefinger of the right hand, into which is fixed what looks like a tooth from the large end of a comb " -- Mrs Ritchie, 25th April 1878. (Ritchie, 1878)

The ‘Annotated bibliography of 19th Century German articles concerning Taiwan (Formosa), compiled by Douglas Fix notes the following specifics regarding the musical attributes of the Formosan aborigine.

• The Formosan aborigine tribes possess simple musical instruments; members of some tribes also sing together in choirs.

23

• There are two music instruments, the Jew's harp and a bamboo flute. The natives dance to the accompaniment of the former musical instrument; there are group dances, too.

• The natives take much pleasure in music and dancing.

• The savages have been taking up Chinese culture, with tutors striving to gradually enlighten children so they are able to understand Chinese literature, customs and music.

(Fix, 1872)

In his 1868 book ”The Aborigines of the Island of Formosa” Mr. Guérin, the former vice-consul of France to Formosa noted that

“The savage women like to sing, and in some tribes they play [musical instruments] as well. The instrument is a bamboo segment that is a decimetre long; two copper tongue-like strips are fastened to one of the extremities, and a thread is slipped through each end. When you want to play this instrument, you place its convex side between the lips; your hands pull the two threads and this gives the instrument a movement of traction and rotation, while the tongue keeps pressing the metallic valves.

In some of the tribes the women and girls accompany their recitative chant with an obscene motion of their hips, and they do this in the most innocent manner imaginable.”

(Guérin, 1868)

In the Japanese period the ‘Organization for the temporary investigation of old customs in Taiwan”

(Rinji Taiwan kyūkan chōsakai) produced an eight-volume series provisional report on investigations of laws and customs in the Island of Formosa from 1913 to 1921 (Okamatsu, 1913-21). Japanese scholars, starting with Tanabe Hisao and, later, Kurosawa Takatomo, performed extensive research on tribal music, including recordings and transcriptions (Tanabe, 1968). The modern study and documentation of Taiwanese aboriginal music was initiated by anthropologists in the early part of last century, in the 1930s, Japanese musicologist Takatomo Kurosawa conducted field trips across the island, recording twenty-six volumes of ten-inch discs.

Later, Taiwanese musicologist Hsu Tsang-Houei (1929- 2001) collected and wrote about Taiwanese folk music, pioneering the realm of Ethnomusicology research in Taiwan. For more than 30 years, he continuously engaged in fieldwork all over the island, founding the Chinese Folk Music Research Centre. Systematic study by Taiwanese scholars did not begin until the

24 1960s, when aboriginal music was a significant aspect of the ‘Folksong collection movement’ led by Shi Weiliang and Hsu Tsang-houei.

The following listing of musical instruments as used by the aboriginal peoples of Taiwan are grouped in the Hornbostel-Sachs is a system of musical instrument classification.

Aerophones

Transverse, end-blown and mouth and nose flutes are found all over the island, but appear far more frequently in the South. These are all considered native aboriginal instruments and are very similar to other flutes in South-east Asia. End-blown flutes are found with two to eight finger-holes, but four-five seems most common. Uses for the flutes are as varied as their forms, and were traditionally used in anything from headhunting ceremonies to courtship. The southern tribes such as Puyuma, Paiwan and Rukai predominately make use of the double pipe nose and mouth flutes which have intricate ties within the culture and hierarchical system. The instrument is said to have originated both to honour and imitate the sound of the hundred-pace snake (Deinagkistrodon acutus) which is believed to be the ancestor and protector of the tribes, the instrument has since developed into an art form of its own and a symbol of power among the Paiwan elite⁹. Northern tribes such as the Atayal and Truku predominately use a mouth flute which is inherently entwined with the practice of headhunting and compliance of ‘Megaga’ term or ‘Pegaga’¹⁰, the old study of ancestral teachings (Gaga) and ancestral spirit (Utuh) protection for allowance to a spirit world after death. This flute is fashioned and played immediately after cutting the head of an enemy for the purpose of taming the victims soul, the flute is made from bamboo in the immediate proximity of the corpse, in cultures such as Truku this instrument is thrown away immediately after use¹¹, whereas the Atayal practice of headhunting allows for the claim of subsequent honours of flute ownership and acquiring of chin and facial tattoos as representation of the glory (國立臺灣史前文化博物館).

9 Interview conducted at Sandimen village with Paiwan tribal elder and musician Pavava Lung. 17^th March 2010

10 The names Gao, Pngao and Pgagu are also recognised, confirmed by Dr. Chang-Kwo Tan. June 2010

11 Interview conducted at Dong Hur village with Rukai musician Gilra-gilrao Lraakaroko. 30^th April 2011

25 Idiophone

Stamping pestle, wooden xylophones and various Jew's harp are among the most common idiophone instruments used in aboriginal Taiwan, other idiophones include bells, rattles and, to a lesser extent, gongs. Although accounts of gongs occur from the Qing dynasty, the instruments have all but disappeared since the early 20th century. The stamping pestle is played predominately by the Thao and Bunun peoples where eight to ten various sized pestle, tuned to a pentatonic scale, are used in group ensembles. The bamboo tubes are struck against a stone-plate placed on the ground. The music of the stamping pestle ensemble is customarily played as a prelude or interlude between A cappella vocal recitals performed by groups up to ten females, this is most now commonly seen at festivals or welcoming ceremonies. The Jew's harp is played by all aboriginal groups with exception of the Yami, (Chi-Lu, 1968) the frame is made of bamboo, into which as many as seven metal tongues are inserted, vibrations are set in motion by pulling a thread that is fixed to one side of the tongue. The Atayal tribe uses the Jew’s harp most frequently to accompany dancing, play melodies or replace verbal communication. Xylophones of wood or bamboo may come from Indonesia or the Philippines, only the Ami currently make use them and they are very rarely seen. There also exists a wooden drum which principally serves as a loom or mortar for husking millet and is still used in this way by the Atayal people, although when used for percussion purposes it may be called a drum, the construction is simply a large wooden box or bowl without membrane (Sadie, 2001).

Membranophones

Drums were unknown in Taiwan so they seem to have been innovated in the post-Formosan region (Blench, 2006). Although it has been documented that plains tribes, as well as the Ami and the Puyuma, have played drums, which are believed to have originated from the Han Chinese, the aborigines do not presently use any drums in their traditional music (Sadie, 2001).

26 Chordophones

The musical bow which is typically used for solo entertainment is found in all aboriginal tribes but used most frequently by the Bunun. There is also a less common flat board zither that seems to be found only among musicians in the Bunun tribe¹².

Taiwan instrument details

Mouth Bow – Latuk, Pis latuk, La-tuktuk, 弓琴

The instrument consists of a thin, bow-shaped bamboo rod with twine made from a plant, dried vegetable skin, or metal wire, stretched between both ends. The top curve of the bow is placed in the musicians mouth and held between the teeth, the base of the instrument is held in with the left hand, with the thumb used to ably pressure to the string in order it alter the tension, or alternatively, held between the thumb and index finger with the remaining fingers used to alter tension. The musician places his mouth around the vibrating string, and by varying the size and shape of his mouth cavity, isolates and resonates specific overtones to sound. The right hand is used to pluck or strum the string.

Traditionally the bow was usually played by men, although priestesses occasionally use it as an accompaniment to their chanting during ceremonials connected with harvest festivals (McGovern, 1922). It can now be found in use for solo entertainment or in small ensembles in performance with the Jews harp.

12 Interview conducted with Ebu Jun, Musical director for Bunun foundation. 22^nd July 2010

Figure 2-1 Mouth Bow

Mouth Bow

(Taiwan National Repository of Cultural Heritage) Figure 2-2 Mouth Bow

(弓琴 Mouth Bow)

27 Jew's harp - Hong-Hong (pis haung haung ) -口簧琴

The Jew’s harp has manifested ubiquitously around Taiwan, the shape and form depending on the materials available and its uses varying according to the aesthetic sensibilities of its players.

The common form of the Jew's harp arising in Taiwan consists of three parts, with the body made if a bamboo strip around 7 to 15cm long,

with one to four vibrating reeds, in some instruments as many as seven reeds are attached, these are commonly made of bronze, attached to the centre of the body and made to vibrate via a hemp string tied to holes drilled in the end of the main bamboo body, an additional length of hemp road is tied to the opposite end of the body which can be wound around the players opposite hand (Ping-chuan, 1974, p.

96). The end of the instrument with attached vibrating reed is held in the left hand with the main body held loosely between the players’

lips. The right hand is used to tug the string attached to the opposite end which vibrates the body. The tone is then altered through manipulating the shape of the mouth. This

instrument is played in almost all occasions, and was popular for use in spare or leisure time, the instrument is general used for self-entertainment but is also used in a two person Jew harp ensemble when entertaining in group situations, traditionally the instrument was intrinsically tied with courtship rituals.

"When a young man's fancy begins to pay court to the maiden of his choice by going each evening about sunset to her home... squatting in front of the door-way of her hut and beginning to play upon a bamboo musical instrument which somewhat resembles a jews' -harp, and which is played in much the

Figure 2-3 Jews Harp

Jews Harp

(National repository of cultural heritage) Figure 2-4 Jews Harp

Bunun Four Reed Jews Harp

28 same way. The sound produced is, to the Western ear, more like a wail or lament than like a love-song.

However, in Formosa it is—as far as the aborigines are concerned—the practically universal method of serenading one's lady-love, and is apparently enjoyed both by the serenading warrior and by the young lady. The lover often keeps up the performance for hours at a time, and returns the next evening, and for many succeeding evenings, to repeat it. All this time he makes no attempt to pay any other form of address to the young lady, or to ingratiate himself with her parents. Finally, after some weeks of this nightly serenading, he leaves the bamboo Jews' -harp one evening at the lady's door. When he returns next evening if he finds it still lying there, he knows that his suit has been rejected ; and as in Formosa a woman's " No " apparently means " No," the swain makes no further attempts to renew the courtship." (McGovern, 1922, pp. 154-155)

Xylophone

Xylophones of wood or bamboo may come from Indonesia or the Philippines. In the past, only the Ami used them, and they are very rarely seen today (Sadie, 2001)

Flutes

Vertical single tube flutes, double tube mouth and nose flutes, single and double end-blown flutes are found all over the island in various forms (Sadie, 2001), and range from 20cm to 60cm long (Ping-chuan, 1974, p. 203) All groups played a version of the mouth flute the Rukai, Paiwan, and Tsou are especially known for their nose flutes though all tribes other that the Yami are noted to have indigenous versions

(Tseng J. M., 2008). The double pipe nose flute is possibly the most widely acknowledged musical instrument amongst the aboriginal peoples of Taiwan and is still highly revered in

Figure 2-5 Amis double pipe six hole nose flute

29 Paiwan and Rukai cultures, though it seems to have been of equal significance to the Atayal and Tsou tribes near the beginning of last century.

“It is possible that these may be used by other tribes, but I think not commonly so;

certainly I have not found them elsewhere than among the Taiyal (Atayal) and Tsuou (Tsou). And with these tribes the nose-flute is used only by the men; it seems semi-sacred in character, as it is played only on festive occasions, usually when celebrating a victory over another tribe or tribal unit. Not even a priestess will play upon a nose-flute; to do so would be "bad form." Playing upon this instrument is the exclusive prerogative of the sterner sex—as much so as is the decapitation of enemies, with the celebration of which it seems closely connected” (McGovern, 1922, p. 184)

The ‘Lalingedan’ or ‘Bakararo’ flute is said to have originated both to honour and imitate the sound of the hundred-pace snake, which was considered sacred in the Paiwanese culture. The instrument was played to show their respect to the hundred-pace snakes and eventually developed into an art form of its own and a symbol of power among the Paiwan elite. The concept of dual pipes is also said to represent a man and a woman as “One without the other is useless”¹³, the pipe containing the holes used for melody representing the male, while the drone pipe represents the female¹⁴.

The Grove dictionary of music describes the end-blown nose flutes as having two to eight finger-holes, with five being most common (Sadie, 2001). On his ethnographic research Ju-Ming Tseng had found only three of five holed flutes and believes the distribution of holes seemed to be determined by the area where the flute is found, he has three holed flutes appearing in Pinghe village and five holed flutes in the Sandimen area (Tseng J.-M. , 2008). In its most general form the double pipe nose flute is made up of two bamboo pipes of approx. 60cm in length with a 3cm internal diameter, the length of the finished pipes vary greatly but can be generalized as

13 Interview conducted at the Institute of Austronesian Studies graduate class. November 2009

14 Interview conducted at Taitung University with Rukai musician Gilra-gilrao Lraakaroko. 27^th May 2011

30 45cm long, finger holes are burnt/drilled in the pipes which are fitted with fipple ducts and tied

30 45cm long, finger holes are burnt/drilled in the pipes which are fitted with fipple ducts and tied