1. The Sequence Type:
1.1. The Time-Based Type:
Each part of the picture sequence within a theme is developed with the
passing of time. The lapse of time can be defined by a chronological marker－an
image in the picture or a situational inference such as the sun and the moon or
waking up and going to bed, etc. Exposed to the time-based type, writers are
inclined to chronologically organize a narrative into a sequence of actions. For
example, the time-based type task (see Figure 3.9) requires students to describe
the character preparing for school, including getting up, brushing his teeth,
washing his face, putting on his uniform, combing hair, and then walking to
school.
Figure 3.9
Sample of the Time-Based Type
Note. Adapted from Creative Writing Book 1, by Newaskar, M., 2005, Singapore: Asian Publications.
1.2. The Steps-in-a-Process Type:
This type focuses on the ordering of steps to carry out a goal. Exposed to
this type, writers are inclined to detail process sequences for telling how
something is done or how to do something as procedures in instructions, recipes,
or manuals. For example, the steps-in-a-process type task (see Figure 3.10)
requires students to describe the process of making tea: to place a kettle filled
with water on the stove to heat the water, to scoop the tea leaves into a teapot,
and then to pour the hot water from the kettle into the teapot.
Figure 3.10
Sample of the Steps-in-a-Process Type
Note. Adapted from Composition through Pictures, by Heaton, J. B., 2006, London: Longman.
2. The Topic-Development Type:
A theme dominates each frame of the picture sequence which tells about or
explains the central topic. There is neither plot nor chronological sequence in this
type. In other words, all parts are related to the shared central topic idea and
evolve around it, sharing no other relationship with one another. Furthermore, it
makes no difference in the picture sequence if the order of the three picture
frames is re-arranged. For example, the topic-development type task (see Figure
3.11) requires students to describe a useful animal－the cow. First, the cow,
which appears to be gentle and obedient, feeds on grass. Second, the cow is used
to pull the plough or carts. Third, the cow produces milk, which comes to human
beings in many forms: fresh milk, condensed milk, milk powder, cheese, or
butter.
Figure 3.11
Sample of the Topic-Development Type
Note. Adapted from Creative & Guided Composition, by Siew, T., 2004, Singapore: Asian Publications.
3. The Cause-and-Effect Type:
This type of picture sequence has a cause-effect plot. Events or happenings
of the previous parts cause some events or outcomes to occur in the following
parts. There could be many causes leading to one effect or there is possibly one
major event resulting in outcomes and additional causal/sequential events. In
sequences. The problem is explicitly depicted in the previous parts of the picture
sequence. What follows is the protagonist’s way to solve the problem and the
consequence or the reaction to solution attainment and endings. Exposed to the
cause-and-effect type, writers are inclined to causally organize a narrative into a
sequence.
3.1 The Cause-and-Effect Type with an Expected Consequence:
There is a cause-effect sequence embedded in the event sequences. What
follows the cause is an expected consequence, reaction or ending. For example,
the cause-and-effect type with an expected consequence task (see Figure 3.12)
requires students to describe how a hat salesman successfully takes back his hats
from naughty monkeys. Coming to realize the monkeys copy every move he
makes, the old hat salesman throws his own hat on the ground. All the monkeys
imitate him, and he takes all of his hats back as a result.
Figure 3.12
Sample of the Cause-and-Effect Type with an Expected Consequence
Note. Adapted from Composition through Pictures, by Heaton, J. B., 2006, London: Longman.
3.2 Cause-and-Effect Type with an Unexpected Consequence:
There is a cause-effect sequence embedded in the event sequences.
However, the effect is an event or reaction out of the expectation of the readers,
namely, a surprise ending. Or there is a problem-solution sequence embedded in
the event sequences. The problem is explicitly depicted in the previous parts of
the picture sequence, initiating the solution to the problem. Nevertheless, what
the solution results in is beyond either the characters’ or the readers’ expectation.
In this type, the readers may review the story from a different perspective. For
example, the cause-and-effect type with an unexpected consequence task (see
Figure 3.13) requires students to describe one fishing experience－a mischievous
swimmer attaches a battered boot to an old fisherman’s hook, making the old
fisherman shocked and disappointed.
Figure 3.13
Sample of the Cause-and-Effect Type with an Unexpected Consequence
Note. Adapted from Composition through Pictures, by Heaton, J. B., 2006, London: Longman.
These five picture sequences the researcher singles out are closely-related
within frames and have been precisely and correctly fixed by all the three
validation teachers. Moreover, different types though these five chosen
three-frame picture prompts are, they share other qualities, including potentially
used vocabulary in the same word level, everyday life topics which are familiar
to senior high school students, and overall quality of each picture frames.
3.2. Subjects
Paragraphs were written by a senior high senior class of 45 students in Taichung
First Senior High using five different types of picture sequences: the time-based type,
the steps-in-a-process type, the topic-development type, the cause-and-effect type
with an expected consequence, and the cause-and-effect type with an unexpected
consequence. Subjects were assigned to write paragraphs with the aid of every type of
the above-mentioned picture sequences.
This study was conducted during the first semester of the academic year 2007 in
Taichung First Senior High School. The researcher selected a senior class of 45
students as the subjects. The reason why the senior class was chosen is that seniors
were in the face of the approaching SAT in the coming year and therefore would take
a serious attitude toward picture writing, a required part in the SAT. As one of
natural-science oriented classes (自然組) in TCFSH, this class has seven hours of
English per week, five for textbook teaching and two for English composition
training.