Theories of Job Satisfaction - LITERATURE REVIEW

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.2. Theories of Job Satisfaction

According to the needs of the people are divided into five levels increased gradually: body needs, security needs, social needs, self-esteem and self-actualization. After a certain demands are met, the demand in the next higher rank will appear. From this theory, we can see that managers need to know if your employees are in demand levels from which to motivate their employees by responding to the demand that their personal.

This is the theory of human needs, and it is considered and applied in this study because only when the employee needs are met, they can have the satisfaction of work. The demands of this theory are discussed in terms of different variables. For example, the satisfaction of physiological needs and safety can be expressed in the variables measuring the satisfaction of income and company benefits. Similarly, the satisfaction of social needs and self-esteem is reflected in the variation is satisfying relationships with superiors and colleagues as well as the variation is given autonomy in performing work.

Figure 2.1 Maslow's hierarchy of needs

(Source: Kreitner, R. & Kinicki, A. (2007), Organizational Behavior, 7^th Edition, McGraw Hill Irwin)

This is the theory of human needs, and it is considered and applied in this study because only when the employee needs are met, they can have the satisfaction of work. The demands of this theory are discussed in terms of different variables. For example, the satisfaction of body needs and safety can be expressed in the variables measuring the satisfaction of income and company benefits. Similarly, the satisfaction of social needs and self-esteem is reflected in the variation is satisfying relationships with superiors and colleagues as well as the variation is given autonomy in performing work.

2. Alderfer's ERG Theory (1969)

Generaly this theory same like the theory of Maslow's hierarchy of needs, however there are some differences as follows: first, the number of needs to be shortened to three instead of five, which is the existence needs, relatedness needs and growth needs; second, unlike Maslow, Alderfer said, there may be many demands appear in the same time (Maslow said that only one needs to appear at a certain time); third factor is offset between the demand, a demand is not met may be offset by other needs (Kreitner & Kinicki, 2007) .For example, an employee may not meet the needs of income may be offset by a good work environment, suitable job, training opportunities for promoted, etc. while Maslow did not admit it.

self-actualization

self-esteem social needs security needs

body needs

The model multivariate linear regression in this study was constructed in which the dependent variable (job satisfaction) and various independent variables (satisfaction of the various needs) proved human simultaneously with multiple needs rather than one.

Figure 2.2 Alderfer's ERG Theory

3. McClelland's Theory of Achievements (1941)

McClelland's theory focuses on three types of human needs: the need for achievement, need for power and the need for alliances. They are defined as follows (Robbins, 2002):

(1) The need for achievement is trying to stand out, to achieve the desired results for the certainly standard, efforts to succeed.

(2)The demand for power is the demand that other people behave the way they want.

(3)The need for alliances that would like to have friendly relationships and intimacy with others.

McClelland's achievement needs to be shown in this study as job characteristics. The work should be designed so that employees achieve "success" they desire. There needs to be expressed in alliance relationships with superiors and colleagues. Finally, the demand for power is shown at the chance to get promoted.

4. Two -Factor Theory of Herzberg (1959)

This theory is divided into two kinds of factors: factors that motivate and sustain factors.

These factors include achievement encouragement, recognition of others, natural of work, job responsibilities, advancement and progress, and prospects of development. If employees are met will bring satisfaction in their work, whereas employees will no satisfaction. These factors include maintaining corporate policy, the supervision of their superiors, wages, relations with superiors and colleagues, working conditions, personal life, job location and a guarantee of work. If there is no response to dissatisfaction at work, on the contrary will lead to dissatisfaction. (Efere, 2005). Thus, Herzberg has separated the two group relative factors and that only those factors can motivate bring satisfaction to employees and otherwise maintain good factors will lead to uncertainty satisfaction of employees.

Many studies have given results do not support the division of two groups of factors such as Herberg also rejected the factors that maintain not bring satisfaction at work. (Kreitner &

Kinicki, 2007). The fact shows that the factor of two types have much less impact to the satisfaction of the worked. However, through the theory of Hezberg that can also see the importance of mobilizing factor in bringing satisfaction in their work as well as the impact of these factors resulted in maintaining dissatisfaction employee.

Figure 2.3 Two -factor theory of Herzberg

5. Vroom's Expectancy Theory (1964)

Vroom said that the behavior and motivation of people is not necessarily determined by the realization that it was decidedby people's perceptions about their expectations in the future. UnlikeMaslowandHerzberg,Vroomdoes notfocus onthe needs ofhuman beingsthatfocuses onresults.Thistheoryrevolve aroundthreebasic concepts (KreitnerKinicki&,2007)or threerelationships (Robbins,2002):

- Expectancy: is the belief that the efforts will lead to good results. This concept is expressed through the relationship between effort and results.

- Instrumentality: is the belief that good results will lead to rewards. This concept is expressed through the relationship between results and rewards.

- Valence: the importance level of the reward for the work done. This concept is expressed through the relationship between rewards and personal objectives.

Vroomsaid thatonlyemployeeswhoaremotivatedwhentheir perceptionaboutall three concepts or threeon therelationshipispositive. Or whentheybelieve thattheir effortswill producegood results,resultsthat will lead torewardsand rewardsthat make sense and are consistentwiththeir personalgoals.

Becausethistheoryis based onthe perceptionsof workers, shouldhappenwhere isdoing the sameina company andat the samelocationasanotherbut a personhasto work,another have notbecause oftheir perceptionoftheconceptsare different.

Figure 2.4 Vroom's Expectancy Theory

(Resource: Robbins, Stephen P. (2002), Organizational Behavior, Pearson Education International, 10^th Edition)

Applying this theory to the research of this thesis, we see that when we want workers to be motivated towards something (of coursethis goal associated with the objectives of the Organization), we must create awareness in employees that their efforts will bring the rewards as they desire. Like to have been aware that first and foremost we have to make the satisfaction of their current work, make them satisfied with the conditions of the current working environment, with the support of superiors, colleagues, thereby making them more

trust in their attempts will lead to results and rewards as they desire. The satisfaction about the payoff also will help them to believe that the results they achieve will certainly get recognition as well as the reward of the company.

6. Adams' Equity Theory (1963)

J. Stacey Adams said that employees tend to assess the fair by comparing the effort they spent than what they receive and compare them with the same percentage of that proportion of the colleagues in company. If the results of the comparison which is equal, they will continue efforts and their work performance. If remuneration received exceeds their expectations, they will tend to increase their efforts in work, whereas if they receive less remuneration than their contributions, they will tend to reduce less effort or find other solutions as absent during working hours or severance (Pattanayak, 2005).

This theory can also be considered in terms of the subject of this thesis. An employee cannot get satisfaction if they realize that their manager are not equal with them about salaries, training opportunities to promote and the support from superiors.

7. Hackman and Oldham Job Characteristics Model (1974)

Hackman and Oldham (1974) have developed this model to determine how the design of work so that employees have to be motivated to work right from inside them as well as create job satisfaction in General and create the best work efficiency. To build the design work, according to two studies, the work must first use a variety of different skills, the employees are aware of the work from start to finish and work must be of certain importance. Three things will the network meaning in work for the employee as well as bring the fun for them. Next, to allow staff to make some certain rights for employees who feel responsible for the results of his work. Finally, the work must be ensured taking into account the feedback from superiors, noting the accomplishments of staff as well as the suggestions and criticisms aimed at helping employees work better next time. It helps employees know the real results of their work.

This model is useful to apply for this research, the characteristics of work will be put to evaluate how the nature of the factors that affect the job satisfaction level of general office staff.

Figure 2.5 Hackman and Oldham Job Characteristics Model

8. The Causes of Job Satisfaction

According to Kreitner Kinicki & (2007) and Alam & Kamal (2006) there are five causes of job satisfaction. The first is a response to the demands. These needs are not limited to the need to complete the work that must include the individual needs of employees and their families.

The second factor leading to job satisfaction level is between the expectations of employees and what they get from the company. As far exceeded expectations fact received, staff will feel dissatisfied. Conversely, if employees get much beyond their expectations will lead to very high satisfaction.

The third leading cause of job satisfaction comes from the awareness of individuals about the value of work. Thus, an employee will be satisfied when the job gives him an important value that is personal. To enhance employee satisfaction, managers need to build a good working environment and compensation regime has recognized the contribution of staff.

The fair is the fourth dimension leads to satisfaction. Staff will compare and effort they spend their accomplishments achieved with effort and achievements of others. If they feel you are treated fairly, they will get satisfaction.

Genetic factors are considered final factor affecting satisfaction. If the four factors on the employer could impact them, much less for this factor, they could hardly be affected. Due to a genetic trait or personality of each child by different people but the same capacity and the same treatment, but two people with different personalities will have different satisfaction levels.

From the theory, the study show that different researchers have different views about the factors bring job satisfaction. However, through the doctrine above, we see the point of the author of the theory. They all said to bring job satisfaction, the managers need to bring satisfy any of the staff. For Maslow and Alderfer, demand that needs to be lived, warm and well fed, be safe, be committed friends, respect and self-expression, etc. The division of the group and rank the needs of two different but he is the type of demand is another similarity. McClelland reminds us the needs for achievement and power of human, the things that many people strive to achieve it. Herzberg, the group launched two factors are eliminated dissatisfaction groups and group brings satisfaction, but the ultimate goal is to satisfy the needs of workers. Vroom will argue that the motivation of employees depending on their perception of effort and reward results but in the end what the employee concerned is also consistent with bonus objectives (needs) of them. Adam emphasized the demand for the fair treatment of people who managed to subordinate staff. Hackman and Oldham also said that staff require their work should be designed in a science fair can get satisfaction in their work.

2.3 Researches Related To Job Satisfaction

Theories related to job satisfaction was above the researchers then consider the application and to conduct research and testing to determine the factors that really affect the satisfaction of of the workers. Here we take a look at some of this research.

Researchers Smith, Kendall and Hulin (1969) from Cornell University have developed a job description Index (JDI) to assess the level of job satisfaction of a factor through nature jobs, wages, advancement, colleagues, and the supervision of their superiors. But researchers Weiss and colleagues (1967) from the University of Minnesota, the criteria given measure job satisfaction through satisfaction questionnaires Minnesota (MSQ) in which the question of the possibility use their abilities, achievements, progress and competence, company policies, incentives, colleagues, creativity, independence, moral values, recognition, responsibility, assurance, social status, superior supervision, working conditions... It can be seen that the JDI and MSQ indicators and criteria for evaluating the job satisfaction of employees was used in the study research on job satisfaction.

Boeve (2007) conducted a study of job satisfaction of faculty physician assistant training in medical schools in the United States based on the use of two-factor theory of Herzberg and index descriptions work of Smith, Kendall, & Hulin. Accordingly, the factors of job satisfaction were divided into two groups: internal factors including the nature of work and advancement opportunities to develop and groups external factors including salary support from superiors and links relationships with colleagues. The purpose of this study was to test the validity of both theories. In this study of Boeve, the quantitative statistics were applied as Cronbach's alpha coefficient, Spearman correlation coefficient and linear regression.

Results of correlation analysis of five factors in JDI for the general job satisfaction factors showed that the nature of work, relationships with colleagues and development opportunities are most strongly correlated with the job satisfaction, while the support of superiors and wages have weak correlation with job satisfaction of teachers. Regression analysis showed that in addition to the four factors is the nature of work, relationships with colleagues, opportunities for development and support of superiors, while working at the department also affect satisfaction teachers (as long adhered to the department felt as job satisfaction). This also explains the job satisfaction in this study is greater than the satisfaction of each element of the JDI. Clearly, in addition to the factors mentioned in the JDI there are other factors affecting job satisfaction and working time is one of those factors. Duration of work that affect job satisfaction in this case is due to the particular nature of science teaching job at this.

In the influencing factors were considered in this study, the nature of the job is the most powerful factors influencing job satisfaction in general. Through his research, Boeve also testing the correctness of the theory of Herzberg and job description of JDI.

Luddy (2005) used indicators job description JDI to learn the job satisfaction of employees in the Institute of Public Health in the Western Cape, South Africa. Luddy had the satisfaction survey in five aspects of job satisfaction, such as income, promotion, supervision of their superiors, colleagues and the nature of work. The results showed that workers at the Institute of Public Health in the Western Cape satisfied with their peers over all, followed by the nature of work and the supervision of their superiors. Opportunities for advancement and salary are two factors here that workers feel dissatisfied. In addition, occupational category, race, gender, education level, seniority, age, income and job placement has a significant impact to the satisfaction. Luddy was used indicator JDI job descriptions to learn the job satisfaction of employees in the Institute of public Health in Western Cape, South Africa. Luddy had the satisfaction survey in five aspects of job satisfaction, such as income, promotion, supervision

of their superiors, colleagues and the nature of work. The results showed that workers at the Institute of Public Health in the Western Cape satisfied with their peers over all, followed by the nature of work and the supervision of their superiors. Opportunities for advancement and salary are two factors here that workers feel dissatisfied. In addition, occupational category, race, gender, education level, seniority, age, income and job placement has significant influence job satisfaction.

Although the results of this study of Luddy (2005) said that both factors in the nature of work, the remuneration, the supervision of their superiors, colleagues and promotion are related to job satisfaction of employees (the sample size is 203), he said that future studies should be performed to further confirm this relationship. A notable feature of this study is Luddy he tried to divide the factors affecting job satisfaction factors into two groups. The first group is the personal factors including race, gender, education level, seniority, age and marital status. Second factor group he called institutional factors include the nature of work, the remuneration / salary, supervision of their superiors, opportunities for advancement and job placement.

Cheng-Kuang Hsu (1977) was used indicator of the job description JDI Smith and colleagues conducted a study to satisfy the work of textile factory workers in Taiwan. The results showed that the index reflects the JDI job satisfaction of workers here. In nine individual factors, there are four factors (gender, age, education level and family opinions about work) have a certain relationship with job satisfaction. In eight institutional factors, up to six factors (nature of work, work location, company policies, the recognition of the organization, the feeling of the time slot and intention to quit) photo enjoy more job satisfaction.

Hsu's study also provides some useful results for the personnel management of the textile industry in Taiwan. For personal factors such as female gender, the most satisfied with their salaries while the men most pleased about job characteristics and relationships with colleagues. Age 21-25 is the age of the highest job satisfaction. The unmarried satisfying salary, promotion and relationship with superiors more while married people are happy with work colleagues and more. Workers from rural to more satisfaction than workers from urban areas. For institutional factors such as the nature of work, the results of this study showed that workers have different levels correspond to the characteristics of different jobs. Positions also affect the level of satisfaction, workers in higher positions higher satisfaction, etc.

Worrell (2004) was used MSQ version was revised in 1977 (short questionnaire - 20 questions) to conduct his research on job satisfaction of psychologists in schools. The results of his research indicates that 90% of school psychologists in the United States satisfied or very satisfied with their work. The study also showed that overall satisfaction has increased

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