Numerical Study on Optimization of Active
Layer Structures for GaN/AlGaN
Multiple-Quantum-Well Laser Diodes
Jun-Rong Chen, Tsung-Shine Ko, Po-Yuan Su, Tien-Chang Lu, Member, IEEE,
Hao-Chung Kuo, Senior Member, IEEE, Yen-Kuang Kuo, and
Shing-Chung Wang, Senior Member, IEEE, Fellow, OSA
Abstract—Theoretical analysis for different active layer struc-tures is performed to minimize the laser threshold current of the ultraviolet GaN/AlGaN multiple-quantum-well laser diodes by using advanced device simulation. The simulation results show that the lower threshold current can be obtained when the number of quantum wells is two or three and the aluminum composition in the barrier layer is about 10%–12%. This result is attributed to several different effects including electron leakage current, nonuniform carrier distribution, interface charge den-sity induced by spontaneous and piezoelectric polarization, and optical confinement factor. These internal physical mechanisms are investigated by theoretical calculation to analyze the effects of quantum-well number and different aluminum compositions in barrier layer on laser threshold properties. Furthermore, the effect of quantum-well thickness is discussed as well. It is found that the optimal quantum-well thickness is about 3 nm due to the balance of the advantages of a large confinement factor against the disadvantages of significant quantum-confined Stark effect (QCSE).
Index Terms—AlGaN, GaN, numerical simulation, semicon-ductor lasers, ultraviolet.
I. INTRODUCTION
G
ROUP-III nitride semiconductors have received much attention in the past few years due to their promising applications in the field of optoelectronic devices such as light-emitting diodes (LEDs) used in solid-state lighting and laser diodes (LDs) used in high-density optical storage systems [1]–[3]. Recently, GaN-based high-efficiency optoelectronic devices in the blue and green regions have been realized andManuscript received February 18, 2008; revised May 03, 2008. Current version published December 19, 2008. This work was supported in part by the MOE ATU program and in part by the National Science Council of the Republic of China under Contracts NSC 96-2221-E009-092-MY3, NSC 96-2221-E009-093-MY3, NSC 96-2221-E009-094-MY3, and NSC 96-2112-M-018-007-MY3.
J.-R. Chen, T.-S. Ko, P.-Y. Su, T.-C. Lu, H.-C. Kuo, and S.-C. Wang are with the Department of Photonics and the Institute of Electro-Optical Engineering, National Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu 30050, Taiwan, R.O.C. (e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]. edu.tw).
Y.-K. Kuo is with the Department of Physics, National Changhua University of Education, Changhua 50058, Taiwan, R.O.C. (e-mail: [email protected]. tw).
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/JLT.2008.926939
commercialized by achieving breakthroughs in the improve-ment of crystal quality and the realization of conductivity control [4], [5]. New ultraviolet laser diodes are also expected for the applications in frontier technologies such as super-high density optical storage systems, high-resolution laser printers, biological sensing, full-color projection displays, biotech-nology applications, and an excitation source of optical catalyst [6], [7]. However, in the ultraviolet region, the high-efficiency group-III nitride optoelectronic devices are still difficult to fabricate, especially for ultraviolet laser diodes. One main reason is the difficulty in obtaining high-quality AlGaN ma-terials due to the low diffusion length of aluminum atom or the aluminum-containing molecules on the surface of epitaxial film. Moreover, it is difficult to achieve high p-type conduc-tivity in p-type AlGaN alloys due to high activation energy of Mg dopants [8]. A further problem is that the GaN/AlGaN system does not have isolation of carriers from nonradiative recombination centers unlike the InGaN/GaN system [7], [9]. Therefore, the reported lifetimes of ultraviolet laser diodes are still quite short from a commercial viewpoint.
Despite the material quality or fabrication problems, re-alizations of the ultraviolet laser diodes have been reported. 365-nm ultraviolet laser diodes using quaternary AlInGaN single-quantum-well structure were demonstrated under con-tinuous wave (cw) operation at 25 C by Masui et al. in 2003. The estimated lifetime of the 365 nm ultraviolet laser diodes was approximately 2000 h at an output power of 3 mW under cw operation at 30 C [10]. Kneissl et al. also realized ultravi-olet AlGaN multiple-quantum-well laser diodes with emission wavelengths between 359.7 and 361.6 nm in the same year [11]. Furthermore, Edmond et al. achieved cw laser diode operation from 348 to 410 nm by using AlInGaN/AlGaN ma-terial system grown on SiC substrates in 2004 [12]. Recently, GaN/AlGaN multiple-quantum-well ultraviolet laser diode with 350.9-nm-lasing wavelength has been demonstrated by Iida et al. [7], [13], [14]. Nevertheless, the laser diode was still operated under pulsed current injection.
In order to achieve high performance ultraviolet laser diodes, systematic and compact theoretical modeling is a necessary approach to improve existing laser structures and understand internal physical processes, which provides timely and effi-cient guidance toward the optimal structure design and device parameters. In this study, effects of quantum-well number and quantum-barrier aluminum composition on threshold properties
of ultraviolet GaN/AlGaN multiple-quantum-well laser diodes are theoretically studied in detail by using an advanced LASer Technology Integrated Program (LASTIP), which self-consis-tently combines quantum well band structure calculations by 6 6 theory, radiative and nonradiative carrier recombina-tion, carrier drift and diffusion, and optical mode computation [15]. Since different quantum-barrier aluminum composition in GaN/AlGaN quantum wells result in different refractive indices, bandgap energies, and interface charge densities induced by spontaneous and piezoelectric polarization, it is expected that the laser performance will be varied with different quantum-barrier aluminum compositions. Although the similar research on AlGaN/AlGaN system has been reported by Chow et al. [16], we will focus our study on GaN/AlGaN system and systematically discuss the effects of quantum-well number, quantum-barrier aluminum composition, and quantum-well thickness on ultraviolet GaN/AlGaN multiple-quantum-well laser performance. Furthermore, how the different physical mechanisms influence the threshold properties is shown in this study as well.
II. THEORETICALMODEL ANDDEVICESTRUCTURE
The self-consistent LASTIP simulation program combines band structure and gain calculations with 2-D simulations of wave guiding, carrier transport and heat flux. The carrier trans-port model includes drift and diffusion of electrons and holes in devices. Built-in polarization induced by spontaneous and piezoelectric polarization is considered at hetero-interfaces of nitride related devices. In the quantum wells, self-consistent Poisson and Schrödinger equations are recomputed at every bias point for the states of quantum well levels and carrier distribu-tions. In the optical mode model, a 2-D scalar complex wave equations is solved for the lateral modes. By calibrating with specific material parameters, LASTIP is a useful tool to access new designs, understand internal physical process, and optimize existing devices [17].
The physical model of the GaN/AlGaN quantum wells is con-sidered in such a way that the conduction bands are assumed to be decoupled from valence subbands and have isotropic para-bolic bands due to the larger bandgap of nitride semiconductor and the valence band structures, which includes the coupling of the heavy-hole (HH), the light-hole (LH), and the spin-orbit split-off bands, are calculated by the 6 6 Hamiltonian with envelop function approximation. By using the basis transforma-tion, the 6 6 Hamiltonian can be transformed into a block-di-agonalized Hamiltonian [18], [19] (1) with (2) (3) and (4)
where is the free electron mass. The parameters are re-lated to the hole effective masses. The crystal-field split energy
is and the spin-orbit splitting is .
The parameters are deformation potential constants. To obtain the numerical parameters required for calcu-lations for the AlGaN materials, a linear interpolation between the parameters of the relevant binary semiconductors is utilized except for the unstrained bandgap energies. The material param-eters of the binary semiconductors are taken from the paper by Vurgaftman and Meyer [20] and summarized in Table I. The un-strained AlGaN bandgap energies can be expressed as
(5) where is the bandgap bowing parameter of AlGaN, which is 0.7 eV in our calculation [20]. The temperature dependent bandgap energies of the relevant binary semiconductors are cal-culated using the commonly employed Varshni formula
(6) The values of , and , i.e., the bandgap energy at zero Kelvin, of the binary alloys are listed in Table II [20]. The optical gain spectra of quantum-well structures, with the valence-band-mixing effect being taken into account, can be ex-pressed by [21]
(7)
(8) where is the free electron charge, is the reduced Planck’s constant, is the index of refraction, is the free-space di-electric constant, is the speed of light, is the thickness of
TABLE I
MATERIALPARAMETERS OF THEBINARYSEMICONDUCTORSGAN, ALN,AND
INNATROOMTEMPERATURE.(1 = 1 ; 1 = 31 = 31 )
TABLE II
VARSHNIPARAMETERS OF THEBINARYSEMICONDUCTORSGANANDALN
quantum well, is the photon energy, is the mo-mentum matrix element in the quantum well, is the intra-band scattering relaxation time, is the nth conduction sub-band, is the th valence subband from the calcula-tion, and are the Fermi functions for the conduction band states and the valence band states, respectively. The indices and denote the electron states in the conduction band and the heavy hole (light hole) subband states in the valence band. To account for the broadening due to scattering, it is assumed that ps [21]–[23] in the calculations. The conduction band offset ratio for the AlN/GaN interface is between 0.66 and 0.81 according to the recent calculations [24]. In our calculations, this value is assumed to be 0.7 based on published literatures [20].
The physical model of carrier transport is the traditional drift-diffusion model for semiconductors. The specific equations can be expressed as
(9) (10)
TABLE III
NETSURFACECHARGEDENSITY ATEACHINTERFACE OF THEGAN/ALGAN LASERDIODE
TABLE IV GAN MOBILITYPARAMETERS
where and are the electron and hole concentrations, and are the current densities of electrons and holes, is the electro-static field, and are the mobilities of electrons and holes. The diffusion constants and are replaced by mobilities using the Einstein relation . The equations used to describe the semiconductor device behavior are Poisson’s equa-tion
(11) and the current continuity equations for electrons and holes
(12) (13) where is the relative permittivity. and are the genera-tion rates and recombinagenera-tion rates for electrons, and are the generation rates and recombination rates for holes, respec-tively. The electric field is affected by the charge distribution, including the electron and hole concentrations, dopant ions and , and other fixed charges that are of special impor-tance in nitride-based devices due to the effect of built-in polar-ization.
Built-in polarization induced due to spontaneous and piezo-electric polarization is known to influence the performance of nitride devices. In order to consider the built-in polarization within the interfaces of nitride devices, the method developed by Fiorentini et al. is employed to estimate the built-in polar-ization, which is represented by fixed interface charges at each hetero interface. They provided explicit rules to calculate the nonlinear polarization for nitride alloys of arbitrary composi-tion [25]. For the GaN/AlGaN quantum-well lasers under study, the net surface charges at all interfaces are calculated and listed in Table III. Although the interface charges can be obtained by
TABLE V
LAYERSTRUCTURE ANDROOM-TEMPERATUREPHYSICALPARAMETERS OF THEGAN/ALGAN QUANTUM-WELLLASERUNDERSTUDY(d, LAYERTHICKNESS;N , DOPEDCARRIERDENSITY;n, REFRACTIVEINDEX ATWAVELENGTH355NM). THEDOPEDCARRIERDENSITY,
N , REPRESENTSACTUALDENSITY OFFREECARRIERS
this theoretical model, experimental investigations often find weaker built-in polarization than that predicted by theoretical calculation. It is mainly attributed to partial compensation of the built-in polarization by defect and interface charges [26]. Typical reported experimental values are of 20%, 50%, or 80% smaller than the theoretically calculated values [27]–[29]. As a result, 50% of the theoretical polarization values are used in our simulation from the average of the reported values.
A widely used empirical expression for modeling the mo-bility of electrons and holes is the Caughey–Thomas approx-imation, which is employed in our calculation and can be ex-pressed as [30]
(14) where , and are fitting parameters according to the experimental mobility measurements. We employ this carrier mobility model for binary GaN material in our calcu-lation. The relative parameters are summarized in Table IV [31], [32]. As for ternary AlGaN, the analytical expressions for mobility as a function of doping density have been established by Monte Carlo simulation for various nitride alloys [33]. Nonradiative recombination is commonly characterized by Shockley–Read–Hall (SRH) recombination and is governed by the defect-related nonradiative SRH lifetime . Defect density and nonradiative lifetime depend on the substrate used and on the growth quality. In this study, we employ a common value of ns in our simulation [34]–[36]. The calcu-lation of carrier capture and escape from the quantum wells is considered in accordance with the model provided by Romero et al. [37]. As for the parameter of refractive index, Adachi model is employed to calculate the refractive index values in each layer listed in Table V [38]–[40]. More description about the physical models utilized in LASTIP simulation program can be found in [41]–[43].
In this simulation, the GaN/AlGaN laser diode structure under study is referred to the real structures [7], [13], [14]. We first assume that the GaN/AlGaN laser diode is grown on an -type Al Ga N layer that is 4.0 m in thickness. On top of this Al Ga N layer is a 0.12- m-thick -type Al Ga N confining layer. The multiple-quantum-well ac-tive region consists of three 3-nm-thick GaN quantum wells and 8-nm-thick Al Ga N barriers. A 20-nm-thick -type Al Ga N electronic blocking layer is grown on top of the active region to reduce electron leakage into the -type AlGaN layer [17], [44], [45]. Furthermore, a 0.12- m-thick -type Al Ga N confining layer and a 0.7- m-thick -type Al Ga N cladding layer are grown. Finally, a 20-nm-thick -type GaN cap layer is grown to complete the structure. The aluminum composition in the Al Ga N barrier and the con-fining layers are varied from 8% to 16%. The effective active region of the ridge geometry is 4 m in width and the cavity is 500 m in length. The reflectivities of the two end mirrors are set at 50% and 90%, respectively. The doping concentrations in each layer and the detailed device structure are described in Table V. The doping data in this table give the actual densities of free carriers.
III. SIMULATIONRESULTS ANDDISCUSSION
The laser output power of the GaN/Al Ga N laser diode structure as a function of input current is shown in Fig. 1 when the number of quantum wells varies from one to five. The simulation results indicate that the best laser performance is obtained when the number of quantum wells is three and the worst laser performance is observed when the number of quantum wells is one. In order to further study the effects of quantum-barrier aluminum composition on threshold current of the GaN/Al Ga N laser diodes. The threshold current values of the laser diodes with different barrier alu-minum compositions are plotted in Fig. 2 when the number
Fig. 1. Laser output power of the GaN/Al Ga N laser diode structure as a function of input current when the number of quantum wells varies from one to five.
Fig. 2. Threshold current values of laser diodes with different barrier aluminum composition when the number of quantum well varies form one to five. The quantum-well thickness is 3 nm.
of quantum wells varies form one to five. According to the simulation results, optimal barrier aluminum composition is about 10%–12% for the GaN/Al Ga N quantum-well lasers. Lower and higher aluminum compositions in Al Ga N bar-rier/confining layer result in larger threshold current values. Furthermore, in this study the optimized number of quantum wells for GaN/Al Ga N laser diodes is found to be three. This optimal quantum-well number consists with that of the experimental laser structure employed by Iida et al. [7], [13], [14]. All possible internal physical mechanisms which lead to these results will be discussed and analyzed in detail in the following content.
A. Electron Leakage Current
In order to understand the internal physical mechanisms which result in the worst laser performance in the cases of lower barrier aluminum composition and fewer number of quantum wells, the vertical electron current density profiles within the active regions of laser structures with Al Ga N and Al Ga N barrier layers, respectively, are plotted in Fig. 3 at 500-mA injection current. This driving current is chosen to be above the threshold current values of the laser diodes under study. The positions of five quantum wells are marked with gray areas. The left-hand side of the figure is the n-side of the device. The electron current is injected from n-type layers into quantum wells and recombines with holes
Fig. 3. Vertical electron current density profiles within the active regions of laser structures with Al Ga N and Al Ga N barrier layers at 500-mA injection current.
in quantum wells. Therefore, the electron current density is reduced in the quantum wells. Electron current which over-flows through quantum wells is viewed as leakage current. The problem of electron leakage current plays an important role for the optical performance of III-nitride laser diodes which are mostly operated at high injection level [17], [44], [45]. Several methods have been proposed to suppress the leakage current, such as increasing p-type doping concentration to increase the barrier height [46] and employing the multi-quantum barrier (MQB) structure to block the overflowing electrons [47]. Besides, optimizing the active region structure is another approach to minimize the electron leakage current. The increases of quantum-well number and height of quantum barrier provide better electron confinement, especially for high operation temperature and high current injection. In Fig. 3, the electron leakage current is still observed even though the number of quantum wells is five in the GaN/Al Ga N laser diode structure. On the contrary, when the barrier alu-minum composition increases from 8% to 16%, better electron confinement is provided and electron leakage current is hardly observed. Therefore, the increase in barrier height by adding more aluminum composition in barrier layer is also an effective approach to suppress the electron leakage current except for the increase in quantum-well number.
B. Nonuniform Carrier Distribution
Multiple-quantum-well laser diode performance is signifi-cantly affected by nonuniform carrier distribution within the multiple-quantum-well active regions [48]. It is expected that this effect will be more critical for nitride-based laser diodes since the conduction band offset is relatively higher than that of conventional III-V semiconductor heterostructures [49]. The nonuniform carrier distribution will also lead to the nonuniform interband gains within multiple-quantum-well active regions. In order to study the effect of nonuniform carrier distribution induced by quantum-well number and quantum-barrier alu-minum composition, the interband gains in the active regions of the GaN/Al Ga N laser diodes with different barrier aluminum compositions are illustrated in Fig. 4 at an input current of 500 mA when the number of quantum wells varies from one to five. In Fig. 4(a), the GaN/Al Ga N laser diode structure induces serious electron leakage current due to poor electron confinement, which results in lower interband
Fig. 4. Interband gain in the active region of the GaN/AlGaN laser diodes with a Al Ga N barrier of (a)x = 0:08, (b) x = 0:12, and (c) x = 0:16 at an input current of 500 mA when the number of quantum wells varies from one to five.
gain, especially for the laser structures with fewer number of quantum wells. Therefore, when the number of quantum wells is less than three, the interband gain increases with aluminum composition in barrier layer. However, as shown in Fig. 4(c), although the GaN/Al Ga N laser diode structure pro-vides better carrier confinement due to the higher aluminum composition in barrier layer, the interband gain values in the quantum wells become very nonuniform, and the highest inter-band gain is always observed in the well closest to the n-side. Furthermore, relatively more uniform interband gain values in multiple-quantum-well active region are observed when the barrier aluminum composition is 0.12, as shown in Fig. 4(b). Consequently, when the number of quantum wells is more than three, the nonuniform interband gain in multiple-quantum-well active region is obvious with increasing aluminum composition in barrier layer.
The deep quantum well with a high aluminum composition barrier is the main mechanism which makes the nonuniform in-terband gain in active region with multiple-quantum-well struc-ture. To further understand the effects of nonuniform interband gain on laser threshold current, Fig. 5 shows the conduction band structure, quasi-Fermi level, and interband gain for the three-quantum-well active layers with a Al Ga N barrier of
Fig. 5. Conduction band structure, quasi-Fermi level, and interband gain for the three-quantum-well active layers with a Al Ga N barrier of (a)x = 0:08, (b)x = 0:12, and (c) x = 0:16 at an input current of 500 mA.
(a) , (b) , and (c) under an operation
current of 500 mA. In Fig. 5(a), shallow quantum wells make the electron overflow severe, which can be observed from the dis-tribution of quasi-Fermi level across the three quantum wells. Nevertheless, as the aluminum composition in barrier layer in-creases, the nonuniform distribution of electron carriers in the deep quantum wells is obvious, as indicated in Fig. 5(c). In this situation, the interband gain decreases gradually as the well po-sition is close to the p-type layer. Consequently, by comparing Fig. 5(a), (b), and (c), when altering the aluminum composition of the barrier layers, a compromise between reducing the elec-tron overflow and an uniform elecelec-tron distribution is required. Hence, the results for triple-quantum-well GaN/Al Ga N ac-tive layer structure with gives the optimum perfor-mance.
C. Spontaneous and Piezoelectric Polarization
Fig. 6 shows the electron and hole concentration distribu-tion in active region for the laser structures with a Al Ga N
barrier of (a) , (b) , and (c)
under an operation current of 500 mA. In addition to the ef-fects of barrier height on the electron overflow and the nonuni-form electron distribution, it is noteworthy that the energy bar-rier height created by Al Ga N electronic blocking layer is substantially reduced by the high density of positive polar-ization charges at the interface between the Al Ga N barrier layer and the Al Ga N electronic blocking layer, as indi-cated in Table III and Fig. 5. This condition is more obvious for laser diode with Al Ga N barrier. Under this condition, the electrons are attracted by Coulomb force and accumulate at this interface, which leads to strong band bending, as shown in Figs. 5(a) and 7(a). Consequently, the increase of laser threshold current will be expected due to the enhanced electron carrier leakage from active layer to p-type layer [46]. Moreover, the high density of positive polarization charges inhibits the injec-tion of hole carriers into quantum wells. As for the injected holes in quantum wells, they will be attracted by the high density of electrons accumulated at this interface. Because of these two mechanisms, hole concentration decreases from p-side quantum well to n-side quantum well gradually, which leads to the same trend for quantum-well interband gain, as evident in Figs. 4(a), 5(a), and 6(a). In the case of the laser diode with Al Ga N barrier, the density of positive polarization charges at this inter-face is relatively lower, which leads to lower electron accumu-lation at the interface between the Al Ga N barrier layer and the Al Ga N electronic blocking layer, as shown in Figs. 5(c) and 6(c). Therefore, the injection of hole carriers is easier than that of laser diode with Al Ga N barrier. Fur-thermore, the injected holes in quantum wells are attracted by the accumulated electrons in the n-side quantum well, which results from the deeper well due to the higher aluminum com-position in barrier layer. For these two reasons, hole concentra-tion increases from p-side quantum well to n-side quantum well gradually, which leads to the same trend for quantum-well in-terband gain, as evident in Figs. 4(c), 5(c), and 6(c).
Fig. 7 depicts the percentage of electronic leakage current as a function of the bias current for the laser diodes with three-quantum-well active layers with a Al Ga N barrier
of , and , respectively. The
percentage of electron leakage current is defined as the ratio of the electron current overflowed to the p-type layer to that injected into the active region of the laser diodes. The per-centage of electron leakage current increases with increasing input current and decreasing aluminum composition in barrier layers. When the input current is below the threshold current values, which are about 200–250 mA, the leakage current rises obviously with input current. Nevertheless, when the input current is larger than the threshold current, the mechanism of stimulated emission occurs, which results in significant carrier recombination in quantum wells. Consequently, the increase of leakage current is suppressed as the input current is above the threshold current. Furthermore, the increase of the electron leakage current of the laser diode with Al Ga N
Fig. 6. Electron and hole concentration distribution in active region for the laser structures with a Al Ga N barrier of (a)x = 0:08, (b) x = 0:12, and (c)x = 0:16 under an operation current of 500 mA.
Fig. 7. Percentage of electronic leakage current as a function of the bias current for the laser diodes with three-quantum-well active layers with a Al Ga N barrier ofx = 0:08; x = 0:12, and x = 0:16.
barrier layer is more obvious with the increasing input current as compared with that of the laser diode with Al Ga N barrier layer. This result is attributed to the above reasons, such as barrier height and electron accumulation at the interface of barrier layer and electronic blocking layer. Fig. 8 shows 50% of the theoretically calculated interface charge densities at
Fig. 8. Theoretically calculated interface charge densities at the Al Ga N/GaN and Al Ga N/Al Ga N interfaces as a function of the aluminum composition in barrier layer.
the Al Ga N/GaN (i.e., the interface between barrier layer and quantum well) and Al Ga N/Al Ga N (i.e., the interface between electronic blocking layer and barrier layer) interfaces as a function of the aluminum composition in barrier layer. The interface charge densities at the interface between Al Ga N electronic blocking layer and Al Ga N barrier layer decrease with increasing aluminum composition in barrier layer. Therefore, the condition of band bending due to the high density of positive polarization charges at the Al Ga N/Al Ga N interface becomes less evident when the aluminum composition in barrier layer increases, as shown in Fig. 5. On the other hand, the interface charge densi-ties at the interface between Al Ga N barrier layer and GaN quantum well increase with the barrier aluminum composition, as shown in Fig. 8. In this situation, the built-in polarization causes a deformation of the quantum wells accompanied by a strong electrostatic field, as evident in Fig. 5(c). Therefore, the separation of electrons and holes in the quantum well becomes more obvious with the increasing aluminum composition in barrier layer, as shown in Fig. 6(c). Under this circumstance, the photon emission rate will decrease significantly, which leads to the increase of laser threshold current.
D. Optical Confinement Factor
Except for the effects of electron leakage current, nonuniform electron distribution, and built-in polarization, optical confine-ment factor is also play an important role for the laser threshold properties. As the aluminum composition in the barrier/con-fining layer increases, the refractive index decreases simulta-neously. Fig. 9 shows the quantum-well optical confinement factor versus quantum-barrier aluminum composition when the number of quantum well is three and the quantum-well thick-ness is 3 nm. The optical confinement factor decreases with the increasing aluminum composition in barrier layer due to the smaller difference of refractive index between confining layer and cladding layer. For the laser diode with , the optical wave intensity is mostly confined within the confining layers. On the contrary, the optical wave intensity is spread into cladding layers as the barrier aluminum composition is 0.16, which leads to the lower optical confinement factor. Although the gain increases with barrier aluminum composition because of the enhanced carrier confinement, the change in confinement
Fig. 9. Quantum-well optical confinement factor versus quantum-barrier alu-minum composition when the number of quantum well is three and the quantum-well thickness is 3 nm.
factor will decrease the modal gain provided by the laser struc-ture. Therefore, the lower optical confinement factor is also an important role which results in the larger threshold current when the aluminum composition in barrier/confining layer increases. E. Thickness of the Quantum Well
After investigating the internal physical mechanisms of the GaN/AlGaN laser diodes with different quantum-well numbers and quantum-barrier aluminum compositions, we will further study the effect of quantum-well thickness on laser diode performance. The most nitride-based light-emitting devices are grown by employing relatively thin quantum wells due to the quantum confined Stark effect (QCSE) in the GaN-based quantum wells. The effect is induced by spontaneous and piezoelectric polarization, as discussed in section C. From the view point of the quantum-well structures, the radiative recom-bination rate is larger with decreasing quantum-well thickness due to the increasing electron-hole wave function overlap [50], [51]. Although the enhanced wave function overlap gives higher material gain for the laser diodes, the thinner quantum well will decrease the optical confinement factor. Fig. 10 shows the threshold current values of the laser diodes with different barrier aluminum compositions when the number of quantum wells varies from one to five. The quantum-well thickness is changed from 3 to 2 nm. In Fig. 10, it is found that the variation of the threshold current values of the laser diodes with 2-nm quantum wells has similar trend as compared with that of the laser diodes with 3-nm quantum wells. This result means that the competition of the above-mentioned physical mechanisms still dominates the threshold properties. Furthermore, it is noteworthy that the threshold current values of the 2-nm quantum-well laser diodes is larger than that of the 3-nm quantum-well laser diodes. This reason can be found from Fig. 11, which shows the quantum-well optical confine-ment factor versus quantum-barrier aluminum composition for the 2-nm GaN/AlGaN triple-quantum-well laser diodes. By comparing Fig. 11 and Fig. 9, the lower optical confinement factor is one of the most important factors which results in the higher threshold current of the laser diodes with 2-nm quantum wells. Besides, the thinner quantum well will induce larger electron leakage current, which is observed in our calculation.
Fig. 10. Threshold current values of laser diodes with different barrier alu-minum composition when the number of quantum well varies form one to five. The quantum-well thickness is 2 nm.
Fig. 11. Quantum-well optical confinement factor versus quantum-barrier alu-minum composition when the number of quantum well is three and the quantum-well thickness is 2 nm.
As for the laser diodes with larger quantum-well thickness than 3 nm, not presented here, the higher threshold current values are also found in our simulation due to the increase of electron-hole wave function separation. Therefore, 3-nm quantum-well thickness is optimal to balance the advantages of a large confinement factor against the disadvantages of QCSE for the ultraviolet laser diodes [16]. This quantum-well thickness is mostly employed in the nitride-based ultraviolet laser diodes [7], [13], [14], [16].
IV. CONCLUSION
We have done the theoretical simulation to investigate the effects of quantum-well number, quantum-barrier aluminum composition, and quantum-well thickness on the GaN/AlGaN multiple-quantum-well laser performance. The relations between the electron leakage currents and the active region structures, for different numbers of quantum well and aluminum compositions in the barrier/confining layers, are discussed and analyzed. The simulation results indicate that, among the active layer structures under study, lower threshold current can be achieved when the number of quantum wells is two or three and the aluminum composition in barrier/confining layer is about 10%–12%. Five different effects cause this result. First, the severe electron leakage current is observed due to the lower
barrier aluminum composition and fewer number of quantum wells. Second, the obvious nonuniform distribution of electron carriers is found due to the higher barrier aluminum composi-tion and the more number of quantum wells. Third, the higher density of positive polarization charges at the interface between the Al Ga N barrier layer and the Al Ga N electronic blocking layer with decreasing barrier aluminum composition is also another important factor which enhances the electron leakage current. Fourth, the interface charge density at the interface between Al Ga N barrier layer and GaN quantum well increases with the barrier aluminum composition, which lowers the photon emission rate. Fifth, the optical confinement factor decreases with the increasing aluminum composition in barrier layer, which leads to the larger threshold current. There-fore, the GaN/AlGaN laser diode with an active layer of two or
three quantum wells and in the Al Ga N
barrier/confining layer has found to be the optimized active layer structure due to the competition of these five internal physical mechanisms. Furthermore, the simulation results also indicate that the optimal quantum-well thickness is about 3 nm due to the balance of the advantages of a large confinement factor against the disadvantages of significant QCSE.
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Jun-Rong Chen was born in Taichung, Taiwan,
R.O.C., on October 23, 1980. He received the B.S. degree in physics from the National Changhua Uni-versity of Education (NCUE), Changhua, Taiwan, in 2004, and the M.S. degree in optoelectronics from the Institute of Photonics, NCUE, Taiwan, in 2006. He is currently working toward the Ph.D. degree in the Department of Photonics and Institute of Electro-Optical Engineering, National Chiao Tung University (NCTU), Hsinchu, Taiwan.
He joined the Semiconductor Laser Technology Laboratory at NCTU in 2006, where he was engaged in research on III-V semiconductor materials for light-emitting diodes and semiconductor lasers under the instruction of Prof. T.-C. Lu, Prof. H.-C. Kuo, and Prof. S.-C. Wang. His recent research interests include III-nitride semiconductor lasers, epitaxial growth of III-nitride materials, and numerical simulation of III-V optoelectronic devices.
Tsung-Shine Ko was born in Tainan, Taiwan,
R.O.C., in 1978. He received the B.S. degree in physics from the National Changhua University, Changhua, Taiwan, in 2001, and the M.S. degree in atomic science from the National Tsing Hau Uni-versity, Hsinchu, Taiwan, in 2004. He is currently working toward the Ph.D. degree in the Department of Photonics and Institute of Electro-Optical Engi-neering, National Chiao Tung University (NCTU), Hsinchu, Taiwan.
He was engaged in research on design of masks for extreme ultraviolet (EUV), the synthesis of gold nanoprticles and the growth of Si/Ge nanostructures under the instruction of Dr. J. Shieh, Prof. H. L. Chen, and Prof. T. C. Chu. His recent research interests include fabrication of nanos-tructure oxide materials and epitaxial growth of nonpolar GaN based materials under the instruction of Prof. T.-C. Lu, Prof. H.-C. Kuo, and Prof. S.-C. Wang. He is going to join Prof. J. Han’s group at Yale University, New Haven, CT, during 2008–2009 and mainly engage in further topics related to nitride-based materials and devices.
Po-Yuan Su was born in Kaohsiung, Taiwan,
R.O.C., on December 8, 1983. He received the B.S. degree in engineering science from the National Cheng Kung University (NCKU), Tainan, Taiwan, in 2006. He is currently working toward the M.S. degree in the Department of Photonics and Institute of Electro-Optical Engineering, National Chiao Tung University (NCTU), Hsinchu, Taiwan.
He joined the Semiconductor Laser Laboratory, NCTU, in 2006, where he was engaged in simulation on III-nitride semiconductor devices including light-emitting diodes and semiconductor laser diodes under the instruction of Prof. T.-C. Lu, Prof. H.-C. Kuo, and Prof. S.-C. Wang. His recent research interests in numerical simulation of III-nitride optoelectronic devices.
Tien-Chang Lu (M’07) received the B.S. degree in
electrical engineering from the National Taiwan Uni-versity, Taipei, Taiwan, R.O.C., in 1995, the M.S. de-gree in electrical engineering from the University of Southern California, Los Angeles, in 1998, and the Ph.D. in electrical engineering and computer science from the National Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu, Taiwan, in 2004.
He was with the Union Optronics Corporation as a Manager of Epitaxy Department in 2004. Since Auguest 2005, he has been with the National Chiao Tung University as a member of the faculty in the Department of Photonics. His research work included the design, epitaxial growth, process, and characteriza-tion of optoelectronic devices, such as Fabry–Perot-type semiconductor lasers, vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers, resonant-cavity light-emitting diodes (LEDs), wafer-fused flip-chip LEDs, solar cells, etc. He has been engaged in the low-pressure MOCVD epitaxial technique associated with various material systems including InGaAlAs, InGaAsP, AlGaAs, InGaAlP, and InGaAlN, as well as the corresponding process skills. He is also interested in the structure design and simulations for optoelectronic devices using computer-aided software.
Hao-Chung Kuo (S’98–M’99–SM’06), received the
B.S. degree in physics from the National Taiwan Uni-versity, Taipei, Taiwan, R.O.C., in 1990, the M.S. de-gree in electrical and computer engineering from Rut-gers University, Camden, NJ, in 1995, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical and computer engineering from the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Ur-bana, in 1999.
He has an extensive professional career both in re-search and industrial rere-search institutions, which in-cludes as follows: Research Consultant with Lucent Technologies, Bell Labs, Holmdel, NJ (from 1995 to 1997); R&D Engineer with the Fiber-Optics Division, Agilent Technologies (from 1999 to 2001); and R&D Manager with LuxNet Corporation (from 2001 to 2002). Since September 2002, he has been with the National Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu, Taiwan, as a member of the faculty at the Institute of Electro-Optical Engineering. He has authored or coauthored over 60 publications. His current research interests include the epitaxy, design, fabrication, and measurement of high-speed InP-and GaAs-based vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers, as well as GaN-based lighting-emitting devices and nanostructures.
Yen-Kuang Kuo was born in Chia-Yi, Taiwan,
R.O.C., on July 19, 1959. He received the B.S. de-gree in electrophysics from the National Chiao-Tung University, Hsin Chu, Taiwan, in 1982, the M.S. degree in electrical engineering from the National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan, in 1984, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the University of Southern California (USC), Los Angeles, in 1994.
From 1984 to 1991, he was with the Aeronau-tical Research Laboratory, Chung Shan Institute of Science and Technology, Taichung, Taiwan. He was a Postdoctoral Re-search Fellow with the Center for Laser Studies, USC, from 1994 to 1995, where he was engaged in research on passive Q-switching with solid-state saturable absorbers. From 1995 to 1997, he was with the Aerospace Industrial Development Corporation, Taichung, Taiwan. In 1997, he joined the faculty of the Department of Physics, National Changhua University of Education, Changhua, Taiwan, where he is a Professor with the Department of Physics and Institute of Photonics and Head of the Laboratory of Lasers and Optical Semiconductors. His recent research interests include passive Q-switching with solid-state saturable absorbers and semiconductor materials for light-emitting diodes, organic light-emitting diodes, and semiconductor lasers.
Shing-Chung Wang (M’79–SM’03) received the
B.S. degree in electrical engineering from the Na-tional Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan, R.O.C., in 1957, the M.S. degree in electrical engineering from the National Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan, in 1965, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Stanford University, Stanford, CA, in 1971. He has an extensive professional career both in academic and industrial research institutions, which includes the following: member of the faculty at the National Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu, Taiwan (from 1965 to 1967), Research Associate with Stanford University (from 1971 to 1974), Senior Research Scientist with Xerox Corporation (from 1974 to 1985), and Consulting Scientist with Lockheed-Martin Palo Alto Research Lab-oratories (from 1985 to 1995). Since 1995, he has been a member of the faculty at the Institute of Electro-Optical Engineering, National Chiao Tung University. He has authored or coauthored over 160 publications. His current research interests include semiconductor lasers, vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers, blue and UV lasers, quantum-confined optoelectronic structures, optoelectronic materials, diode-pumped lasers, and semiconductor-laser applications.
Prof. Wang is a Fellow of the Optical Society of America and the recipient of the Outstanding Scholar Award from the Foundation for the Advancement of Outstanding Scholarship.
