Bulletin of EducatlOnal Psychology, 2∞ 1 ， 33 (1)，的-86
National Taiwan Norrnal University, Taipei, Taiwan, R.O.C.
Chinese Wives' Perceptions of Their Life in
the USA during the Period of Their
Husbands' Doctoral Study
SHAO-Kuo
YEHDivision of General Education and Core Curriculum Tamkang University
This study focuses on how Chinese graduate students' wives adapt to American society and how they evaluate these experiences while their husbands are about to attain the doctoral degree. The wives of five new Ph.Ds or candidates were interviewed. The results are presented in two p訂ts. The fl ISt reveals general modes of adjustment. There are two diverse pattems of adjustment shown in the initial period. Afterward, all the mformants share the three later stages. The second p紅tstresses the effects of specific factors and life incidents on the adaptation process. Herein they experience some alienation and a great many other di伍culties. Yet the endeavor pays off in the various forms of improvement. When their husbands were about to obtain their degree, they also are aware of the need to have continuous growth. This study underlines the interaction between individual mental state and environment adaptation, notably the positive effect of going back to school on the wives' sense of self-worth and the smoother functioning of their marriages. Attention is also paid to some of the negative effects of the dependent role on the wife's career. The study also suggests the necessity of English classes and adaptation counseling for them.
KEY WORDS: sojourner adjustm側， Chinese students' wives, life incidents, return to school
Every year, many Chinese women accompany their husbands when they go to the United States. Their husbands often are graduate students at a certain university and have to stay in the host country for several years to pursue their advanced degree. Church (1982), Mallinckrodt and Leong (1992), Manese, Sedlacek, and Leong (1988) indicate that international students, moving to a new coun叮 and experiencing new cultures, often face problems, such as language, financial
甜位的，social adjustment, loneliness and problems of daily life. Females feel these problems even more acutely and have less social support than their male counte中紅的.
66 教育心理學報
recommended that the a吐justment of international students should be paid close attention. He
stressed 血atthe students showed substantial emotional distress while abroad as well as during the readjustrnent period after a foreign sojourn. Culture shock and reverse culture shock are likely to happen.
Students' Wives' Special Situation as Dependents
1nternational student spouses are presumed to be in a plight sirnilar to (or even worse than) an international student's plus having the unique experience of being legally dependent. They are less prepared to come to the U.S. They may have lirnited previous foreign cultural experiences, lirnited host language ability and lirnited social contacts with Americans, in comparison to international students (Lo,1993). Often their experiences may be compared to the imrnigrant women who are viewed as “passiye followers or passive dependents" (Morokvasic, 1984; Snyder, 1987). Snyder points out that the immigrant women who follow someone else's decision to migrate were observed to experience a higher level of depression than those who made the final decision themselves.
Church (1982), based on his comprehensive review of sojourner adjustment literature,
concluded that women had more adjustment difficulties than men did. Espin's (1987) and Freidenberg, 1mperiale, and Skovron's (1988) studies on the process of ernigration reached the sarne conclusion.
Chinese spouses had supported (or joined) their husbands' careers and usually left their careers and farnilies behind, and had no specific goals of their own life in the U.S. They face a purely new land and new social-cultural system. Chinese student's wi伐， Lo (1993) studied the adjustrnent of 11 Chinese student's wives within their first year of arriv祉， from 1-12 months, and found that they generally experience the following problems: identity confusion, language difficulties, homesickness and isolation, poor living conditions, culture shock (adjusting to the food, climate, customs etc. of the U.S.). Feelings of helplessness and stress also arise as a result of the change in life events and occupational status. What do they work out in the later period and what becomes of them after several ye訂sof adaptation? 1t has received little research attention. There are a number of studies on imrnigrant women and some on international students but rather few on the sojourn of graduate students' spouses.
The student spouses are not registered; they are not p訂t of the university community. The university takes responsibility for the international students but not for their spouses. They have no formal affiliations except their farnily; they are almost invisible in the public world. Besides, if you were not one of them, it would be difficult to gain access to them. Their struggling
Chinese Students' Wives Compared to Immigrant Women
The research on immigrants pointed out that proficiency in the Ianguage of the host coun仕y
leads to faster and easier adaptation. Korean and Chinese immigrant women usually stayed home or were employed for low pay and long hours of work, highly incompatible with their educational level, due to their language di伍cu1ty (Kim & Hurch, 1988; Lee & Coc趾徊， 1988). L。這(1 993)
study found that the Chinese students' wives has undergone drastic career changes. The similarity to those of Korean and Chinese immigrant women is they have language problems and difficulty in finding ajob compatible with their educational Ieve1s.
Career;
“
nguage, and life. The impact of career change is a little varied between the Chinese students' wives and the immigrant women, however. For instance, Kim and Hurch's (1988) study shows that the Korean immigrant women suffer from the high stress of double roles without any adequate preparation for their new environment. Such role management could have negative effects on the women's self confidence, health and their relationship with other family members. The Chinese students' wives in Lo's study changed from career women to full- time homemakers and mothers. They were frustrated at a career abruptly altered by circumstances not of their choosing. Some of them believed by the time their English improved, everything will improve. However, ìt takes time to achieve language proficiency. Furthermore, there are several factors other than language that influenced their attempts to 時-establish careers, such as incompatible social system, F2 visa, etc.In Lo's study, language deficiency is considered unanimously as the major problem in sojoumer adjustment to life in the U.S. The language difficulties of Chinese students' wives not only limited them to unrewarding jobs but also h位npered their daily communications, such as answering the phone, medical problem,etc. rather than academic work. In addition to having no car they seldom went out by themselves. They had negative feelings about depending on their husbands both in daily routines and finance. For the sake of overcoming their deficiency, 7 out of 11 informants in Lo's study spent nearly 40 hours per week in average in activities related to learning English.
Marital relations. Many researches indicate that the marital relationship influences the psychological well-being of immigrant women. Snyder's (1987) study of Mexican imm
. 68 教育心理學報
have become more dependent on them. Sometimes tensions would grow between them. Regrettably, often they do not have time together except for errands, such as grocery shopping. Besides, the longer the couple was separated before reunion, the more likely they would have marital problems.
Morokvasic (1984) revealed 也atnumerous immigrant women are ambivalent about k臼ping
the right to remain in the country, or escaping th巴 oppressiveconditions by getting them deported. Social isolation, the language barrier, and for some, discrimination and fears of depo加tionwere major barricades stopping them from seeking help (Bauer, Rodriguez, Quiroga, & Flores-Ortizs,
20(0). However, in L的(1 993)study, one inforrnant was battered by her husband, and she asked for help from the husband's advisor and the international student advisor. Finally she filed for divorce. She was not threatened by the possibility of deportation. It seems the students' wives and immigrant women do not always have the same major problems or share similar perspectives or strategies to cope wi也 lifeincidents or circumstances.
The Adaption and Perception of Chinese Students' Wives
The literatures of the sojourner adjustment process outlined that sojourners go tbrough developmental stages, from an initial period of excitement and fantasy, through negative sentiments, and a gradual recove可 orreintegration to the new milieu, to finally achieving a high level of adjustment. It is supposed to follow the U-curve hypothesis which views the sojourn哎 's
level of adjustment as a function of time (Church, 1982). Such 也eoriesimplied an exclusion of the impact of life incidents, the need of professional help and their endeavors in the adjustment process. Chinese students' wives as a subculture group may be di仔.erentfrom immigrant women in general. There are few studies analyzing their adaptation, the factors advantageous and disadvantageous to their adjustment, and their unique experiences and feelings in the whole process.
Lo's (1993) study focuses on the t訂getpopulation in their early phase in order to develop an orientation program for them, but none has covered the later periods. Their struggles, strategies of coping, and their final triumph remain untold. The people in different situations interpret their lives differently. How does their condition as a wife of a student influence their perceptions and feelings? What are the factors influencing their life in the New World or their husbands' education? What do they feel or h..:'" do they evaluate this period of their life? What do they expect of their future beyond this sojourn? How do they relate their husbands' graduation to themselves? Do they follow any specific pattern in the process of adaptations? Can their unique experiences of struggling in a foreign country serve as an inspiration for newcomers? This study aims at exploring the experiences of such wives during the whole process of their adaptation in the U.S.
Method
A central assumption of the Iife history method, which is used in 也is study, is that human conduct is to be studied and understood from the perspective of the persons involved (Denzin,
1989). The researcher actively solicits the informants' experiences and views and constructs of their life histories (Taylor & Bogd阻， 1984). The life history approach enables us to know people intimately, to see the world through their eyes, and to enter into their experiences vicariously. Also, life histories províde a touchstone to evaluate the validity of theories.
Sampling
A semi-structured in-depth interview was planned for the purpose of the study. Chinese student spouses were selected. The interviewer and informants had the same language and cultural background, which was a helpful factor in conducting in-depth interviews. Most of the students or their wives have no close relationship with the interviewer. They are usually seen as better informants than close friends (Taylor & Bogdan, 1984)國
The name list of the Chinese Student Association in a land-grant university in Virginia was the source of potential informants who met three criteria: firstly, she should be the spouse of a doctoral student who was about to finish or had already finished within the year; secondly, her initial status should be a passive follower supporting her husband rather than a visiting scholar or a student in her own right; and, thirdly, she should have already stayed in the United States for at least three years with her husband.
For the study, a prelirninary informants list was made. Then the relationship network was used to gain access to the potential informants. The informants often were defensive before agreeing to an interview. After making quite a few overtures, three informants were located. The fourth informant was found as a result of a
“
snowballing e旺ect"(Taylor & Bogd恤， 1984). The last informant was a new friend of the interviewer from Taiwan. Her experiences, also as a reference, were helpful in developing theoretical insights into the topíc being studied.The background and economic status of students from Mainland China is somewhat different from that of students from Taiwan where most of the people live in democn:l 'y and wealth. Few
students from Mainland China get financial support from their farnilies of origin. In addition, they are more Iikely to stay in the U.S. after their graduation due to the democratic life-style and social-political climate and much better salaries. Those differences may impact on 出esojoum life of their wi ves ' .
Conducting Interviews
When each informant agreed υbe interviewed, the time and place were scheduled for her convenience by the author, the only interviewer. Establishing a trustful rapport between the interviewer and the informant was of great importance. The principle of unobtrusive and nondirective manner suggested by McCracken (1988) and also adherence to the non-judgmental and sensitive attitude suggested by Taylor and Bogdan (1984) were followed during the
.
70 . 教育心理學報mtervlews.
In the initial period, the interviewer chatted with the inforrnant about personal experiences. The inforrnant was then offered professional guarantee of, (a) anonyrnity, (b) the opportunity to read and cornrnent on the draft prior to publication, (c) privacy in keeping the interview tape from any other individual other than the interviewer. A friendly and SUppol'tive atmosphere was
painstakingly created to induce the inforrnant to talk fr，臼ly.
An interview guide was used in the procedure to make sure that key topics were explored with all the informants. The key topics included the inforrnants' general background in their country, their original expectations of American life, their perception of cultural di在'erences， their work experiences and difficulties during the process of adjustment, the important changes and their consequences, the important life incidents, their perceptions of their husbands' success, their aspirations or expectations for the fu仙re.
Each interview, in Mandarin, took about one hour and a half on the average. The interview
pr的ess was audiotaped and field-noted. Afterw紅d， it was 紅anscribed. Each transcription was double-checked by the informant in order to increase the reliability of the study. The author translated the citations in the text.
Characteristics of the Informants and Their Background
The inforrnants, code-named
“
Joan",ranging in age from 35 to 37 years old. They had been in the U.S. from 4 to 5.5 years. The first three had one child each, about 7 - 8 years old. Katty's daughter is only one year old. They shared sirnilar experiences in the Great Cultural Revolution when they were young. They also shared the cornrnon experience of educational interruption. Joan, Lisa and Katty had the chance to enter a college later, but Joyce was taught Japanese by her professor fa也.erat home. All of them were from educated farnilies.
Before they arrived in the U.S., all enjoyed professional jobs with good social status. Currently, Joan's and Joyce's husbands are about to finish their Ph.D. degree, whereas Lisa's and Katty's husbands are doing post-doctoral work. Joan was enrolled in nursing school 也issurnrner. Joyce is a p訂t-timewaitress. Lisa and Katty are p訂t-timetechnicians.
The Taiwanese inforrnant, Heidi (code name) is 31 ye紅sold and has been in the U.S. for 3.5 years. She is also from an educated farnily and has followed a continuous educational path. Before she came, she was a full-time teacher. Her husband had just finished his Ph.D. degree and gone back to Taiwan with their one-year-old daughter. She had stayed to complete her master's degree.
Data Analysis
Data analysis refers to reading the transcript in order to determine the categories, relationships and assumptions that forrned the respondents' view of the world in general and of the topic in particular. McCracken's (1988) five-stage strategy was followed and adapted to the data analysis process of this study. Each of the stages represents a higher level of generality.
to know how the issues were constituted in each respondent's own experiences. The author treats each utterance in the interview transcript on its own terms. The second stage examined the key terms (or main ideas) and their implications, according to the previous literature and culture review, and in terms of the evidence in the transcript. The third stage examined the inter-connection of the transcript, literature, and culture review. At this stage, reference to the transcript is made only to check ideas as they emerge from the process of comparison. The fourth stage was to determine the consistency or contradictoriness of the pattems in the commonality and specialty of each experience. The fifth stage took the pattems and themes related to the context and developed the final statement from them.
Following the five stages of the data analysis, two major categories emerged: (1) the time line of wives' adaptation to life in the U.S.; (2) the important incidents 出at happened during this period, such as marital problems, going to school, child birth, etc. that might change the curve of adaptation to life in the U.S.
Results
The General Adaptation to the New World
The first categories of data analysis showed two general modes of adjustrnent along a time line in the U.S. In the initial period of the informants' arrival two diverse responses appe紅ed
toward their life ín America. Afterward, all the informants share a 3-stage adaptation.
The same pathway 的 theUSA but d(加rentperiods of separation. All my informants came to
the U.S. by the same pathway; the husband studied in the USA first; then requested his wife to join him after he h~d partially settled down. The separation period ranged from a half year to three years.
Diverse expectations of American life before arriva1. 1t is likely that Mainland China
informants had very positive, high, or unrealistic expectations of their life in America due to insufficient information about the United States. Their feelings, expectations, and experiences are quite similar. A typical example is 10an:
When 1 received my passport and visa, all my famil只 friendsand colleagues celebrated with me. They praised me: 'hOW keen your eyesight is that you have such a prominent husband" . At that time, 1 was so fascinated with the world outside of China. 1 was happy to go abroad and had a high expectation of American 1拚. 1 felt 1 was veη luc卸 andfelt superior to others.
Lisa said:
Everyone congratulated me and believed America to be a veη nice place where you are able to do anything you like. But, 1 didn 't entirely understand the United States. Everything
72 教育心理學報
was so ambiguous. 1 couldn 't imagine how WOndel而1it could be. It must be a place easy to eam a living. My English is poor. However, 1 supposed 1 would master English naturally after arriving in this countη.
In contrast, Heidi, from the economically developed area, Taiwan, had a more realistic understanding of intemational students' life in America. She said:
1 was reluctant to come, because, at that time, 1 was sati明edwith my life and 1 had a goodjob.
No matter what they thought and felt, they eventually relinquished their good jobs and left their families and loved ones behind because they must join their husbands to save their marriage. Joan said:
恥 hadalready been separated from each other for three years. My daughter had no impression of her father.
Heidi s位d:
1 decided to come although 1 was reluctant. One year after our separation, 1 戶undour conversational topics diminishing. 1 was scared that we would gradually have nothing to talk about. 1 thought 1 would like to partake of his student experience and struggling process in the United States.
The initial period of arrival: a diverse mode of experience. The initial period to some was
characterized as a “honeymoon", to others it was a negative experience: dull, pathetic and distressful. This was related both to one's previous life experiences in her home coun住yand the situation met at 也attime in the host coun虹y. Joan, Lisa, and Katty had a good impression of the U.S. Forex缸npl巴，Joan said:
1 assessed American life as better than Chinese life in eveη respect. Since my husband had a car when 1 first arrived, we had freedom and traveled here and there. 明令 couldenjoy our life.
Lisa said:
Everything was new and special. 1 cherished it.
However, the initial experiences of Joyce and Heidi are totally different from those mentioned above. Joyce, the youngest child in her family of origin, did not feel good after the novel feeling wore off. She was not allowed to bring her son with her; she missed him and stayed at home most of the time. She said:
1 cannot 的lk(ianguage dφciency); 1 cannot go anywhere (no car九:1 cannot understand things even after 1 have heard and watched. 1 know nobody except my husband. 1 am crippled, blind, dea
f,
and dumb!Heidi, from Taiwan, felt bored and lost in the town. She said:
The rhythm of my lífe became slow. 1 lived in the past that provided honorable memories. 1 got lost. 1 was scared that the people 1 1φ behind would forget me. All other Chinese students and spouses here are outstanding; 1 am nothing special. /'m so common that no one looks up to me. 1 often cried and always wrote letters home.
At that time, her husband had just come from another state. They had no car, knew nobody,
and there were no activities or social events on c缸npusin May. Her distress continued for at least 3 months.
The exploratory and strugglíng period. Life is an exploratory and struggling process.
Fantasies must be confronted with reality and difficulties can be overcome. Grief, resentment and crying are useless. 1n the next step, Lisa, Joan, Katty and Joyce started to look for jobs. A great many problems arise; language deficiency is the greatest barrier. Joan used to be a teacher of Chinese herbal medicine. She found it impossible to find a decent job in such a small American town. Out of financial considerations, three months later she took a part-time job in a Chinese restaurant, doing kitchen chores and waitressing. She felt lost, had no social status in the host society, on top of her language deficiency. This period lasted for 8 months. Joyce was an expert in Japanese. She, too, remembered her first job in the kitchen:
1 couldn't speak English. 1 couldn 't drive a car. A friend drove me to the restaurant. My task was cutting onions. The odor mingled with my psychological suffering, made me cη
My manager took pity on me and didn 't complain although 1 always made mistakes. At the end of that night 1 earned fifteen dollars. My tears melted into a smile. It was the first time 1 had earned American dollars, but with such an inferior status.
Katty was a researcher in chernistry. She was qualified to apply for a technician's postion,
which was available on campus. Although she had some background in English, her language skiU was not sufficient for her to pass the interview. A half year later she became a part-time technician after improving her language skills. Lisa was luckier, as she got a technician's postion in her husband's departrnent within two months. At the beginning, communication was really a problem for her. She usually asked her husband for help. But 也isjob required limited English and she could guess at the meanings from the drawings and mechanical specifications, so she could be on her own. All of my informants had to work fewer hours or had to quit their jobs temporarily in order to p訂ticipatein intensive English classes. This strategy was a valid way to cope with stress and made their lives easier.
Because they had su匠心ient financial support from farnily on one hand and due to legal prohibition to work on the other hand, Heidi did not have a job, but English classes contributed a lot to her daily life, socialization, and the plan for further study.
The settled-down and endeavoring period. Overcorning the language barrier accelerated their
adjustment. During this period, they either found a job or established meaningful rel訕。nships.
All my informants met their temporary goals. This period often started 6-8 months after their arrival. Heidi prepared for the TOEFL exam. Katty and Lisa dedicated themselves to their jobs.
74 . 教育心理學報
Joyce was delighted with her son's arrival. She also worked as a part-time waitress. Her goals were advancing her language skills and understanding the culture her host country. Joan said:
Besides supporting my husband and caring for my daughter, earning money and increasing my language skills were my goals.
She was proud of her ability to send money to the family members she left behind.
Even in the settled-down period, struggles and conflicts persisted, although they eventually decreased. Heidì found that her interactions with Amerìcans stayed at a superficìal level. She concluded:
They always showed good manners but they kept you at a distance. It is impossible to become close friends with them.
Additional旬，speaking English was another burden or pressure for her. She said:
When 1 was depressed, 1 avoided any occαsion that called for me ω speak English.
Joan worked at the Sheraton and the Red Lion as a housekeeper. She experienced unfairness and dìshonesty that perhaps derived from racial discrimìnation. Her manager always took the tips that customers left for her. She was angry but did not want to accuse her manager. Katty's work experiences were mìxed with stress, anxiety and mìsunderstanding. Sometimes she made mìstakes because she was reluctant to communìcate wì也 herboss or did not clarify questions or problems. She often worried about being flred, convinced that her boss was dissatisfled with her. However,
she said:
Thiswαs not really the t間的， because after 1 quit my job due ω pregnancy， my boss often asked my colleagues what was the true reason for my resignation. He asked: “明是lS she dissatisfied with her salary or unhappy with me ?"
The settled-down period lasted about two to three years in the experience of all my informants. Most of them achieved their goals and became more relaxed, self-confident, and adaptive. Joan changed jobs and began working at the Warm Hearth, doing housekeeping for an American family for about two years. She said:
1 attained my greatest achievement in earning money and advancing my language skills.
Heidi passed the TOEFL exam and was admitted to graduate school at the same university as her husband; but soon she became pregnant. Although she postponed returning to school for the sake of an insecure pregnancy, her life was more comfortable th個 everbefore. Her pregnancy provided the feeling of warmth and the admission offered hope. Lisa also changed her attitude toward the host coun仕y. She explained:
1 eventually got an insight into this country. Americans are the same human beings as we Chinese. Although 1 am a foreigner; 1 can live here well based on my hard work, cordial nature, and other virtues.
The red，φning and recovering period. Based on my informants' experiences, this next period is characterized by increased English proficiency, resolved financial problems, the husband's academic success, improved self-confidence and self-esteem and equilibrium with regard to the new culture.
Through the adjustment process, they acquired knowledge, developed competence, and obtained a sense of achievement. In addition to a change in political climate and financial improvement, they were able to redefine their goals.
In 也isperiod, my informants faced issues such 品， potential permanent stay, “ll-time jobs,
social status, etc. Joan decided to go back to school, where she is a part-time student at a nursing school. Katty often stayed at the library or went shopping with American women after she got pregnant and quit her job. She said:
Life is easy and sati功ing.
She had her baby 紅ound 甘lanksgivingtime and prior to this interview. From 也attime on,
she has been a full-time mother and part-time technician. Both she and Lisa intend to take c1asses in graduate school. Katty said 也at she wanted to update her professional knowledge and learn new skills. She expected that school life would advance her language ability, enhance her confidence and refresh her life. Lisa expected 也atshe would progress persistent1y and contribute more to this society and eventually to her son's development. Lisa worked on the TOEFL exam
ve可 hard. Current1y, Heidi has deferred her student career until her baby's birth, which alleviated her homesickness.
In the previous summer Heidi was enrolled in a counselor education program. Life for her is busy, fulfilling, and satisfying. Joyce's life has become relaxed and easy too, but her agony is still focused on her lack of a professional career. She complained:
It is too d
if.fi
cult to find a good job in this small 的wn.She expects to move to a large city in the future so that she can utilize her expertise and also her socia1 isolation will not be as severe. Joyce is also proud of her knowledge of America and American culture, but, based on my informants' responses, their c10se friends are often limited to other Chinese women. Their source of news is from Chinese newspapers. My informants have been away from their home coun甘yfor several ye紅sand during this time none of them have gone home. They often miss their family members, surrounding them with sweet memories. In view of the isolated and stressful experiences in the process of adjustrnent, their homesickness is natura1
and their conflict is perennia1. However, when they have a1most gone through the whole process of sojoum, they got new insights to 出eexperience in the U.S. Joan told me:
Before entering school 1 felt depressed about my status; there was no reason to stay here; 1 woulrf have gone back. However, my friend convinced me， “ You 加veforgotten the disadvantages of our society. You may have status there but you wiU lose your freedom. Could you tolerate it now?
76 教育心理學報
Living in any place is almost the same.
Kathy and Joyce mentioned how nice and delightful their lives were in their home country. Before they arrived, they believed that the American moon was much bigger 也anthe Chinese one. Now, several years have passed and they have adapted well to their new world. They now believe the moon in their homeland is clearer and brighter than in anY other place.
The Effect of Marital Relationship and Life Events on the Adaptation to the New Land
A marital relationship is the most important source of support for a couple in a foreign country (Snyd仗， 1987). However, the pain and stress of adjustment or life events or both often
influence the marital relationship.
The pressure on the husband. All my informants' husbands were doctoral students with a
teaching or research assistantship. GeneralIy their husbands were under much pressure in their classwork, ex紅ns， papers, research, and other adjustment problems at the beginning of their stay. These tensions were often reflected in their marital relationships. The informants illustrated their husbands' situations as follows.
Katty described:
The rhythm of American society is so fast that he must adapt ω this new environment. He was under α great deal of pressure and stress due to study, lab, and language. In Mainland China he was a nice husband and always respected me. But, here, he often lost his temper and found fault with me. "告 quarreledoften. This is a common thing in Chinese student families.
Joan said:
My husband feels distress from studying. He believes that ω study hard is a sufficient expression of his responsibility 的 hisfamily. 1 need help to stay in this country but he doesn 't know how to offer help. Possibly, he has never thought about this issue. Due 的 lack of communication and understanding, we have conflicts and are suspicious of each other. 1 think he doesn 't care about me αnymore because of his rising status.
Lisa's case was almost the same:
“
My husband is 的o busy 的 takecare of me. Instead he often asks 1間的 dosome extra chores to serve his needs. 1 hope to study and hope that he will share some household and childcare chores with me. However; he is unavailable. 1 戶el stres拱tl and unhappy toward him. Two years ago 1 got a permanent job in 肋shingt，側， D.C., and 1 gave it up because of his disagreement. His opinion has always overridden mine. Sometimes 1 feel 1 havesacrificed 的omuch for this family. "
The effect of separation before reunion. Long periods of sep紅ation before reunion in the U. S. often resulted in marital conflicts. This was evident in Joan's experience. Joan had had a very intimate relationship with her husband originalIy. However, ten months after 出eygot married, her
husband went abroad. He only met their daughter once:
A戶erthree years' separation, when we were together agaìn, 1 ìmmedìate砂 feltthat both of us had changed somewhat. However; 1 couldn 't identify what had really changed. He was not used to being a father; and he didn 't know how ω get close to his kid or what 的 dowith her. My daughter 戶lt strange toward her father. She didn 't want to give hím a kíss each morning when he left home. He felt frustrated and disappointed. This situation lasted until she was five years old. Owing to her an.xieη and insecuriη in the new environment, she always clung to me and strongZy depended on me, which infuriated him.
The birth of a child. A baby's birth is a great life event to a family. It may cause stress or bring joy. Heidi postponed her graduate study for one ye紅 dueto pregnancy; however, with good f紅也ly support she believed that her best period in the U.S. started from the birth of her baby, which helped them form a sweet home for themselves. Her mother-in-law, visiting them from Taiwan for the birth of the child, helped to care for the baby for three months. Then they sent the baby to a baby-sitter during the daytime each weekday. For the remaining time, her husband cooperated wíth her to take care of the baby. It was apparently a sweet home after her baby was bom. Heidi said:
1 changed my home ìdentity from my parent's famìly to this small famìly. My homesickness disappeared.
To Kat旬， a baby indicated satisfaction, warmth and pride. Her husband also loved their
daughter, but she lamented that the energy and time consumption on childcare mixed with financial burdens sometimes diluted theír delíght. This implies that the impact of babybirth depends upon socia1 resources and the family support system.
The husband's graduation. According to the Chinese point of view, the husband's academic success is supposed to be shared by the wife. When the husband's dream came true, how did the wife live this vicarious achievement? How did this event impact on the marital relationship?
Generally speaking, my informants felt good after their husbands finished their coursework, passed their preliminary exams, and fulfilled their hopes. Additionally, they were happy for their husband's comfort and felicity. Joyce had a satisfying relationship with her husband. She imagined that they could leave the small town, that her husband would earn good money and then support her to go back to school. But she also emphasízed that the Ph.D. degree he earned ultimately belongs to the husband himself and not to the wife.
Lisa perceived her husband to be suffering from his desire to be a good provider after he had passed his preliminary exams. He often woke up in the middle of the night before he got a post-doctoral position. Her husband's perception of his own role was an especial1y traditional OT\e. She
said:
He has never done any household work but took my services for granted. He ís demanding in our household. lf 1 can 't serve well or when something is overlooked, he finds fault wíth me. He is a male-centered person, and treats hìs own extended family as having
. 78 . 教育心理學報
prlOr!ty over me.
Based on this understanding, she pointed out:
Asaw(舜， you don 't expect your husband to offer you 他Ippinessbut you create happiness
foryourse缸
She continued:
A husband cannot be relied on; a wife should develop hersel
f,
be assertive, be independent, and be self-reliant!If
a wife always improves herself,
the husband will be more satisfied with her. A human being is a group animal. To be a 戶ll-timehousewife is to be as isolated as a prisoner is.Katty stated:
My husband does not require muchfrom me. He is basically a conservative and reliable man; 1 don 't have much wor.η about the impact of his rising status on ωr relationsh紗. Iam confident of myse
lf.
/'m competent; 1 have a job, my own interest, and a good character.Although 1 say so, 1 like to develop and make progress all the time. 1 strong秒 insiston the equality of the family relationship between husband and wife.
Wife 世 schooling. Does the wife's going back to school have a positive influence on her and the marital relationship? Katty, Joyce and Lisa expected that the schooling experience would create a psychological well being for them. Joan and Heidi experienced 也isas well. Helping to reconcile a friend's marital conflicts, Heidi got insight into her own needs and prospects. She told her friend:
If you have your own careeπ you may have a broader horizon. You will not be so pestered by your husband's behavior.
She, then, decided to pursue a student role. In better econornic status, she concen凶tedall her rnind on passing the TOEFL exam and obtained the adrnission form in the next year after arrival. Since she began to take classes, she said:
1 feel happy, confident, and have a sense of value and hope. Spiritual紗.， 1 rely on my studying, though financial砂 I 戶ela little stressed. /'ve achieved autonomy by myse
lf.
My career ambition has emerged.Joan also described the positive influence of her own studies on her marital interaction:
Often 1 told my husband, “Since 1 have taken classes you have shown more respect toward me than ever". He did not concede it. Before 1 took classes, he often inhibited my activities outside of the home. Now he has changed; he often encourages me to join in activities. Why? Now, 1 can share his experience as a student in the United States. The communication between us has improved. In case 1 am busy or careless in my housework, he
will help with childcare or other things spontaneously. He has begun to care about my schoolwork now.
After this statement, she smiled. Originally, her husband had discouraged her. He told her his goal in 也islife was not confined to just academic achievement. He had already sacrificed other enjoyments in life for the sake of his student career; he didn't want her to follow this lifestyle forever. The Taiwanese wifl巴 Heidi also interpreted her change from nonstudent to student very keenly and vividly:
Before taking class, 1 had no insights into his experience; vicarious experience is not so vivid as direct experience. Now, we share common experiences and similar conversation topics. The relationsh砂 between us is psychologically eqω1. He encourages me in many ways. On the weekend, he takes care of the baby and lets me stay 的 the library. Since 1 started taking classes, 1 have become more self-confident, more expressive of my opinions or ideas. My life has a clearer goal. Now 1 am preparing for the futu惚，though 1 am very b叫y.
Discussion and Implications for Cross-Cultural Counseling
Pattern
01
Adaptation and Influential Factors.Church's (1982) coUection and description of the stage theory for sojoumer adjustment, can be partially applied in the present study. Current informants showed two diverse modes of adjustment in the initial period, a ‘honeymoon' experience or a dis恨ssful living pattem. Two of the five informants had no excitement or fantasy in the initial period. Afterward, all of them went through 3 stages along a time line: the exploring and struggling process, the settled-down and endeavoring sta阱， and 也e redefining and recovering stage. All of them became more relaxed with the host environment after exploring and struggling. The home coun住yenvironment, original expectations, separation from children, financial state, the timing of arrival, the time length of the stay, and various Iife events that happened during the time are important variables influencing their adaptation process. Lo (1993), Ward and Kennedy (1999) mention that different perspectives or attitudes toward the host coun甘y were also associated with better sociocultural adaptation. It is also shown in the present study.
The most recent study on the Korean immigrant women's acculturation into the American society has identified 4 stages: dreaming, conflict, renunciation, and remorse (Shin & Shin, 1999). The present study shows differences in the fllst and the Iast stages between the Korean immigrant women and the Chinese student's wives. The difference in the finaI stage is probably between the mentality of permanent immigration and 由atof temporary sojoum.
The Chinese students' wives in this study describing their difficulties and their efforts in the first year are quite similar to the wíves in Lo's study. However, Lo's informants all had a feeling
. 80 . 教育心理學報
of helplessness, and many expressed the mood of suffering and adversity. They did not think it possible to plan for the future, because they did not know what the future would bring. They took one step at a time hoping that the circumstances would improve. In contrast, evidently all of the wives in this study were optimistic about the future as if most of their dreams would come true. In the latter period, they got rid of grief or resentrnent, and made the best efforts to beat the odds; their life horizon was extended, language improved and self-esteem rose. They became far more independent. They empathized more with their husbands' struggling. The different r，自ponse to life events and perspectives toward the future also ref1ect the different stages of adjustment. After all, a human's behavior is the function of his personality and the environment.
The informants' experiences suggest that when one's self-esteem increased, one's interpretation of the extemal world may change too. Human relationships will improve if the wife is independent or progressive, and she will gain both psychological and substantial rewards. Obviously, a husband's support is a very powerful source of well-being and academic achievement. As the informants' experiences suggested, although the adjustrnent to a new world is hard, there are Qlany different options or s住ategiesto get through it.
Dependency αnd Career Development.
According to the literature, the wives' employment outside the home relates positively to their mental health, broadening their social horizons, enhancing their sense of independence (Staines & Pottick, 1986; Foner, 1998) and reducing the negative effects of some forms of marital stress (Krause, 1984). However, for the intemational student spouse, these conclusions should be mediated by their attitude toward work, the compatibility of this work with her educational level,
and the possibility of relieving household and child care stress.
As a dependent wife and for financial reasons, wives have to downgrade themselves to part-time jobs. Professional training is often in vain. Somepart-times they con.fined themselves all day long to a limited home space for childcare which is tantamount to house-arrest. Several years down the road, the husband will normally advance his educationallevel and achieve higher status. By that time, will he, originally expecting a dual-career family, still be satisfied with the wife's dependency and expect to be the lone breadwinner? If the wife wants to go to school in order to reactivate her career, will he support her emotionally and financially? It all depends on the relationships and the husband's perspectives.
My informants' marital relationships are fundamentally decent. During the period of their husbands' graduation, the most cheerful time, most of them feel good about themselves and feel confident in their husbands and their relationships. They don't think too much about risk and change in the future. Only Lisa was alert to the need of independence and self-reliance.
The role of being a follower is often encountered with the problem of job availability. A compatible job for the husband does not mean a similar oppo此unityfor the wife in the same place. The immigrant women are less likely to be employed and promoted than immigrant men and native bom women (Goyett & X銬， 1999). So the wife often obtains a job incompatible with her educationallevel, limiting her personal growth and developme帥，impoverishing her inner life, not to mention the disadvantages in promotion. Gradually, the wife feels detachment from the
workplace or leaves it. Such a compromised career is likely to happen in the later life of the follower's career.
The Narrowing of Life Goals and the Attempt 的 Brealf.Out.
All my informants are highly educated women and have their own social status in the home countries. When they are in the USA, their personal goals became uncertain and as a rule were temporarily replaced and redefined by the husband's educational goal. After the narrowing of life goals and the shifting of the center of gravity to their husban啦，也eybecame over-vigilant toward the husbands' performance, thus often causing grief and resentment. Besides, it is a moot question if the husband is grateful to the wife for her crucial assistance and shares his achievements wi也
her. One of the informants specifically expressed her doubts.
The need for personal development and the fear of social isolation shown in immigrant Chinese women (Lee & Cochr阻， 1988) were also evident in the students' wives in both Lo's study
and 也isstudy. Based on my infonnants' comments, if they can overcome financial straits and the
language barrier, taking classes as a student in the field they are interested in is an altemative to being a full-time housewife. It helps to set their own goals and provide opportunities for further growth. This study shows obviously that the husbands of an originally dual-career family tend to appreciate their wives' efforts to develop. The informants' experiences implied that when on巴's
self-esteem increased, one's perceptions of the extemal world rnight change also. Accordingly,
life will be more satisfactory. This suggests that husband and wife should work and be educated together.
Howa 11 Home" is Constructed.
That Lo's informants yearn to have
“
the feeling of a ‘home'" in the U.S. is also expressed by the informants in this study. The wife of a Chinese graduate student often has a confused sense of“
home". Her family of origin is more likely to serve as her psychological“
home". The young couple moved to the U.S. but their “home" is left behind. Uprooted in a foreign coun甘y，wife andhusband 訂einterdependent on each other. With the birth of a child, they began their own
“
home" in U.S. Her rnind is settled and her homesickness is relieved. The emotional and psychological attributes of “home刊訂erealized. Heidi's clear experience and specific expression supported to some extent Bi's (1996) study, which indicated that“home" implied a di在'erentmeaning for men and women. To m凹，home is a rest place after a d呵 'shard work. But to women, home is also aworkplace, which is meaningful in terms of its
“
emotional at的butesand affiliations".According to the study, a baby or child is a crucial factor to construct a feeling of home in the foreign country. There is no doubt that it is a cheerful thing in a family with a good marital relationship and with the necessary financial suppo此 At last the p訂閱ts are able to afford the
necess訂ytime and energy. But, if such conditions are unavailable, the birth of a baby often causes trouble and difficulties to the young couple in a foreign country. Katty's utterance is only a signal to indicate a big trend. Besides, how a “home" is constructed in psychological meaning from one person to another is worthy of exploration
82 教育心理學報
The lmprovement of Studying-Abroad Through Orientation Programs.
A
“
studying-abroad workshop" provided by a home coun甘ygovemment to both students and their spouses would be a useful way to modify their expectations and equip them with life skills for studying in a new world. Language efficiency of the host country is a fundamentally important factor in the adaptation of students' wives, both for daily live and knowledge acquisition. Accordingly, the language skill training is as important to 血e spouses as to the students. It is vital to be well prepared. An appropriate orientation program in addition to an ESL program offered by the host institutions or the university to intemational student spouses is necessary to lessen the difficu1ty of their adaptation. Searching for the meaning of sojoum abroad and setting up 也espouse's own goal would help them to reduce emotional distress and enhance their adaptation skills.
Postscript: Other Stories not lncluded in the Study
The current informants have above average marital relationships. They decided to be a participant in this.research of their own accord. However, other wives who were undecided may have their own stories.
In one uncited case, a couple from China had talked about divorce due to great marital conflicts. The wife was reluctant to participate in this study because of her fear that her husband,
who had obtained his degree and a full time job, would be angry and prevent her from getting the green card.
Another wife who worked in a Chinese restaurant was extremely interested in the research and eager to participate but her husband reneged on her behalf. When 1 called her in a last attempt,
he said defensively.“my wife told me what you want. However,‘we' felt that it was inappropriate for her to p訂ticipatein your research. She is O.K. in America, no problem at all; besides, 1 will provide for her to go back to school." Nonetheless, the wife had told me a different story earlier:
“
My husband is the kind of guy who prefers his wife to stay home and be fully supportive of him. He is unlikely to support me to go to school." Thus, 1 became suspicious of the true reason of her lack of response.The original inspiration for this research is from two doctoral students' wives from Taiwan. In the early phase of my stay in the U.S., one of them told me how she had encouraged her husband to study abroad in order to detach himself from the meddlesome in-laws. She treasured the freedom that she had now. The other regretted about a broken dream; she depleted all her savings and borrowed from the in-laws because his graduate assistantship was inadequate. Legally she was not allowed to work. She did not enter school due to the birth of their baby and financial straits. All her friends' careers went well in Taiwan. She has been sacrificed for so many ye紅S‘
She often counted the days to her husband's graduation.
Limitations and the Need for Further Study
All the uncited cases 位evaluable would-be informants, which rnight enable the researcher to explore the subject more comprehensively. However, it is difficult to bring this population into the
research for many reasons. One who has marital problems is unlikely to become an informant.
The wives located in a big city or metropolitan 訂閱 may encounter different opportunities and acquire a different living style from those in the countryside. The U.S. experiences of international spouses from different cuIture areas may vary. Accordingly, the resuIt and conclusion of the study can be referred only to the women of similar backgrounds and situations,
such as highly educated wives of Chinese graduate students', wives with above average marital relationships, et al.
Further research is needed to examine the career development of these women, whose careers have undergone drastic changes. A follow-up study on these wives' career development will be beneficial to the understanding of the women's situation and their dilemma as a dependent. It is also interesting to explore the adjustment process and the decisions in life íncídents of metropolítan wíves wíth marital problems. The author waíts for the chance to supplement this study.
The other angle of approach ís cultural ínfluence. The wives of intemational students from different culture areas may confront dífferent things resulting ín dífferent adjustment processes.
Their perceptions of life in the foreign coun:甘ymayv訂y. How culture factors work on their lives,
and how their home are constructed, etc., also merit our attention. It wi1l be very interesting to wíden the study by makíng a comparison between Chinese students' wíves in the U. S. and American students' wives in China or T位wan.
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收稿日期: 2001 年 1 月 8 日
國立臺灣師範大學教育心理與輔導學系 教育心理學報，民闕， 33 卷， 1 期，的 -86 頁
