探討國際社區服務如何影響臺灣高中生英語學習信念之質化個案研究 - 政大學術集成

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(1)國立政治大學英國語文學系碩士班碩士論文指導教授：黃怡萍先生 Advisor: Dr. Yi-Ping Huang. 立. 政治大. ‧ 國. 學 ‧. 探討國際社區服務如何影響臺灣高中生英語學習信念之質化個案研究. sit. y. Nat. The Influence of International Community Service on Taiwanese High School. io. n. al. er. Students' Beliefs about English Learning: A Qualitative Case Study. Ch. engchi. i n U. 研究生：蔡宜臻撰 Name: Yi-Jen Tsai 中華民國 104 年 6 月 June, 2015. v.

(2) The Influence of International Community Service on Taiwanese High School Students' Beliefs about English Learning: A Qualitative Case Study. 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. A Master Thesis Presented to Department of English, National Chengchi University. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. In Partial Fulfillment Of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts. By Name: Yi-Jen Tsai June, 2015.

(3) 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v.

(4) Acknowledgements This work could not have been finished without the priceless contribution of many people. First and foremost, I would like to express my sincere gratitude and deepest appreciation to my advisor, Professor Yi-ping Huang, for continuous support and encouragement through this long and arduous thesis journey. Her precise and warm guidance helped me keep on the right track and head toward the final destination whenever I was lost and frustrated. Besides my advisor, I would like to thank the two committee members, Professor Chen-kuan Chen and Professor Chin-chi Chao, for their insightful comments and questions, which helped me to refine my thesis with a better understanding of qualitative studies. I am also indebted to Feng-yin Chen, my peer debriefer and companion, who provided useful suggestions and timely encouragement throughout the conduction of this study and the completion of my thesis. My thanks further go to Mary, Bonnie, Wendy and the other three participants for having good time with them during the interviews. Without their generous sharing of their English learning experiences and opinions, this research would not be possible. Last but not least, many thanks are owed to my family and my friends, whose influence might not be so evident but who provided the financial and spiritual support without which I would not be able to concentrate on and persist in writing the thesis.. 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. iii. i n U. v.

(5) Table of Contents. Acknowledgement ........................................................................................................iii Chinese Abstract .......................................................................................................... vii English Abstract ..........................................................................................................viii Chapter 1. Introduction ................................................................................................................ 1. 治政 Prosperity of service learning ................................................................................. 1 大立 Classification of service learning ........................................................................... 1. Background of the study ............................................................................................ 1. ‧ 國. 學. Influence of service learning .................................................................................. 3 Research purpose........................................................................................................ 4. ‧. Research questions ..................................................................................................... 5. Nat. sit. y. Definition of terms ..................................................................................................... 5. er. io. 2. Literature Review....................................................................................................... 7. al. v i n Ccontexts Learner beliefs in different 10 h e n......................................................................... gchi U n. Definition and functions of learner beliefs ................................................................. 7. English as a second language (ESL) .................................................................... 10 English as a foreign language (EFL) .................................................................... 13 English as a lingua franca (ELF) .......................................................................... 15. Factors influencing/shaping learner beliefs.............................................................. 17 The influence of context on learner beliefs .............................................................. 19 3. Methodology ............................................................................................................ 23 Research design ........................................................................................................ 23 Context ..................................................................................................................... 23 Participants ............................................................................................................... 25 iv.

(6) Data collection.......................................................................................................... 26 Data analysis ............................................................................................................ 29 Validation ................................................................................................................. 30 Ethics ........................................................................................................................ 30 4. Results ...................................................................................................................... 33 Mary ......................................................................................................................... 33 Summary of Mary's background .......................................................................... 33 Mary's beliefs about English learning .................................................................. 34 Bonnie ...................................................................................................................... 51. 治政大 Bonnie's beliefs about English learning ............................................................... 51 立 Wendy ...................................................................................................................... 70 Summary of Bonnie's background ....................................................................... 51. ‧ 國. 學. Summary of Wendy's background ....................................................................... 70 Wendy's beliefs about English learning ............................................................... 70. ‧. 5. Discussion ................................................................................................................ 89. Nat. sit. y. Research question 1 .................................................................................................. 89. er. io. Research question 2 .................................................................................................. 96. al. v i n Ch 6. Conclusion ............................................................................................................. 111 engchi U n. Research question 3 ................................................................................................ 104. Summary of the study ............................................................................................ 111 Pedagogical implications........................................................................................ 113 Limitations of the study.......................................................................................... 114 Suggestions for future research .............................................................................. 115. References .................................................................................................................. 117 Appendixes ................................................................................................................ 127 A. Pre-service Interview Protocol .......................................................................... 127 B. Wendy's Post-service Interview Protocol (1) .................................................... 133 C. Wendy's Post-service Interview Protocol (2) .................................................... 139 v.

(7) D. Guideline of Journal .......................................................................................... 151 E. Questionnaire ..................................................................................................... 153. 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. vi. i n U. v.

(8) 國立政治大學英國語文學系碩士班碩士論文提要論文名稱：探討國際社區服務如何影響臺灣高中生英語學習信念之質化個案研究指導教授：黃怡萍博士研究生：蔡宜臻論文提要內容：. 政治大. 現有文獻指出服務學習對於語言學習之情意因素、文化知識習得以及語言能力有所助益（Caldwell, 2007; Grassi, Hanley & Liston, 2004; Grim, 2010; Hummel, 2013; Liu, 2012; Polansky et al., 2010; ter Horst & Pearce, 2010），然而，甚少探討服務學習與學習者信念的相關性。另外，許多研究致力於探究學習者信念之形成及其場域因素（Amuzie & Winke, 2009; Kaypak & Ortaçtepe, 2014; Ke & Cahyani, 2014; Mercer, 2011a; Naghdipour, 2014; Yang and Kim, 2011; Zhong, 2010），但臺灣卻少有此類研究。本文旨在探討臺灣及斯里蘭卡兩種場域中之英語學習者信念，進而了解國際服務學習前後，英語學習者信念之變動性。為了深度刻畫及完整了解不同場域中之英語學習信念及其變動性，本研究採用質化個案研究方法。為收集研究資料，本研究於國際社區服務前及國際社區服務後分別訪談參與該活動的學生，並採用經常比較法分析三位臺灣高中學生之英語學習信念。研究結果顯示學生的五項主要英語學習信念，包括（一）英式和美式英文是標準/常見的英文、（二）英語系國家為理想的英語學習環境、（三）具備充足單字量之必要性、（四）自信與敢開口說英文之重要性、（五）以溝通和/或考試為英語學習之目的。此研究結果反應出英語為外語以及英語為共通語兩種場域之特性，並經由信念的變動情況，得知學生經驗與其環境之相互關係如何影響學習者信念。為了結合國際社區服務與英語學習，本研究亦提供建議，使國際社區服務學習活動得以臻於完善。本文最後將說明本研究之限制並提供未來研究之方向。. 立. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. 關鍵字：場域、英語學習信念、國際社區服務. vii. i n U. v.

(9) Abstract While the existing literature on the effects of service learning on second/foreign language learning sheds light on benefits for affective states, acquisition of cultural knowledge and enhancement of language skills (Caldwell, 2007; Grassi, Hanley & Liston, 2004; Grim, 2010; Hummel, 2013; Liu, 2012; Polansky et al., 2010; ter Horst & Pearce, 2010), its relation with learner beliefs has not been addressed. Moreover,. 政治大 interests (Amuzie & Winke, 立2009; Kaypak & Ortaçtepe, 2014; Ke & Cahyani, 2014; although contextual factors that shape learner beliefs have aroused researchers'. ‧ 國. 學. Mercer, 2011a; Naghdipour, 2014; Yang and Kim, 2011; Zhong, 2010), few studies of this trend has been conducted in Taiwan. Therefore, the present study aims to explore. ‧. English learners' beliefs in regard to Taiwanese and Sri Lankan contexts and probe. y. sit. n. al. er. io. approach.. Nat. into the changeability of these beliefs after service learning through the contextual. i n U. v. To provide to an in-depth description and holistic understanding of learner. Ch. engchi. beliefs about English learning across different contexts, a qualitative case study was conducted. The present study focuses on three senior high school students’ beliefs collected mainly from interviews before and after the international community service and analyzed with the constant comparative method (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). Five significant themes of learner beliefs were identified: (a) British and American English as the standard/common, (b) English-speaking countries as the ideal learning environment, (c) the necessity of adequate vocabulary size, (d) self-confidence and challenge of speaking English, and (e) aiming for communication and/or tests. The findings reflected the features of English learning in EFL and ELF viii.

(10) contexts. Also, the students' learning experiences and their interrelationship with different contexts seem to be more influential than the environment itself. In the attempts to take advantage of the international community service for English learning, this study provides suggestions for modifying the design of community service programs. Limitations of the current study and direction of future studies are also discussed.. 政治大 Keywords: context, English learner belief, international community service 立 ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. ix. i n U. v.

(11) CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Background of the Study Prosperity of Service Learning Service learning (SL), primarily developed from the significant connection between education and action (Terry & Bohnenberger, 2004), has been strongly. 政治大 1990", 1990). In 2014, 立 approximately 400 institutions offered courses that. promoted in the United States since 1990 ("National and Community Service Act of. ‧ 國. 學. incorporated service learning, and 274 institutions placed great emphasis on service learning, although not in a course-offering manner. In each of these educational. ‧. institutions, the number of teachers who devoted to these courses increased from 41. sit. y. Nat. in 2012 to 43 in 2014 (Campus Compact, 2014). In Taiwan, the Youth Development. n. al. er. io. Administration also attempts to approve and enact legislation in order to support. v. service learning projects in K-12 schools and universities. According to official. Ch. engchi. i n U. statistics, 111 international volunteering service projects were implemented, and over 1,879 teenagers participated in 2013. Furthermore, the Ministry of Education anticipates that there will be 280,000 accumulated times of participation in youth service in 2016.. Classification of Service Learning Due to its popularity, service learning has become a generic term of multiple service curricula or projects, including volunteerism, internship, practicum, community service, community-based learning and service-learning (Cress, 2005). 1.

(12) According to Wade (1997), it is classified into two major subsets: service-learning 1 and community service. Service-learning is regarded as the activities that are integrated with formal and academic classes and allow learners to apply what they have learned in classes to the real situation. There are two forms of service-learning activities for school curriculum. One of the forms is a "pedagogical method" or technique added to a normal academic class (Wade, 1997, p.20), such as interdisciplinary course (ter Horst and Pearce, 2010) and multicultural American course (Jay, 2008). The other type of service-learning can be a formal curriculum. 政治大 to serve the target community with their disciplinary knowledge most of the time 立. itself. Different from traditional classes, a service-learning course requires students. rather than simply sit in classroom listening to lectures (Grim, 2010; Seider,. ‧ 國. 學. Rabinowicz & Gillmor, 2011; Seider, Rabinowicz & Gillmor, 2012). In brief,. ‧. service-learning can be either a small part or a major element of formal courses.. sit. y. Nat. The second category of service learning is community service, also known as. io. er. "school-based community service" (Seitsinger, 2005, p. 19), which is broadly defined as volunteering work with the primary aims to benefit community regarding. al. n. v i n Cofhservice activities U to its need (Kendall, 1990). This type is often alternative engchi volunteering projects separated from school regular classes. Students often. participate community service as an extracurricular program during long breaks. (Humbert, Burket, Deveney & Kennedy, 2012; Maher, 2003; Seitsinger, 2005). There is neither the integration of formal disciplinary curriculum nor the reflection on learners' academic performance in community service. Therefore, the feature that distinguishes service-learning from community service is whether or not academic. 1. In this study, "service learning" is used as the umbrella term of while "service-learning" refers to. one type of service learning, which specifies the incorporation of academic learning with service activities. 2.

(13) courses are integrated in such activities or programs.. Influence of Service Learning With the proliferation of SL programs, studies on service learning has boosted as well. From 1993 to 2000, over 135 research paper of this field were published (Eyler, Giles, Stenson & Gray, 2001), and more studies, as reviewed later, are continuously conducted in current years. Research related to service learning has revealed that participation in service activities can result in multiple impacts on. 政治大. learners' personal understanding, social involvement and academic learning. 立. (Conville & Kinnell, 2010; Furze, Black, Peck & Jensen, 2011; Jay, 2008; Jones &. ‧ 國. 學. Hill, 2003; Nelson & Eckstein, 2008; Seider, Rabinowicz & Gillmor, 2011; Seider, Rabinowicz & Gillmor, 2012; Stewart, 2008).. ‧. Previous inquiry into various effects of service learning on second/foreign. Nat. sit. y. language learning has explored: (a) motivation, (b) confidence, (c) cultural. n. al. er. io. understanding and (d) second/foreign language skills. First, service activities. i n U. v. motivate students to learn the target language and to continue offering help for the. Ch. engchi. needy. From the survey conducted by Grim (2010) with a French service-learning class, most of the students' willingness to learn French increased by serving as a French teacher for the youth. Second, learners became more confident in both language and service after their involvement in the community. During the interviews, most of the participants in Hummel's (2013) studies expressed that self-confidence was enhanced by successful communication with community members during service-learning work. As shown in these studies, personal enjoyment in language learning in school increased with higher motivation and improved confidence (Grim, 2010; Grassi, Hanley & Liston, 2004). 3.

(14) In addition to learners' affects, cultural learning can be achieved by exposure to the community partners with different personal backgrounds and by preparation and instruction of the target language during service activities (Grim, 2010; Hummel, 2013; Polansky et al., 2010). Hummel (2013) has found that after the interaction with the target community, students corrected their misunderstanding and eliminated their stereotype of English-speaking minority in a French region of Québec. Moreover, Grim (2010) has observed that the students in her class developed an open-minded attitude toward cultural difference as introducing French language and. 政治大 involved in service learning can attain a broad view of world culture. 立. culture to young children. In sum, second/foreign language learners who are. The last effect of service learning is the improvement of learners' second or. ‧ 國. 學. foreign language skills (Caldwell, 2007; Hummel, 2013; Liu, 2012; ter Horst &. ‧. Pearce, 2010). After participating the storytelling service-learning task designed and. sit. y. Nat. guided by Caldwell (2007), students reported that their Spanish speaking skills were. io. er. enhanced and the importance of Spanish was recognized through the process of service. Similarly, by analyzing students' post on the online discussion wall, ter. al. n. v i n Horst and Pearce (2010) have foundCthat the length of the U h e n g c h i content and the level of. vocabulary in students' German writing were improved. To sum up, service learning can provide opportunities for second/foreign language use and meanwhile enhance learners' speaking and writing abilities.. Research Purpose Although the previous research has shed light on benefits for affective states, acquisition of cultural knowledge and enhancement of language skills, the relation between service learning and learner beliefs has not been addressed. Since learner 4.

(15) beliefs about second language acquisition (SLA) reflect the features of specific contexts where learning occurs (Barcelos, 2006), service participants' beliefs may reveal the potential of English learning in service learning. Moreover, through understanding the changeability of learner beliefs, improvement in design of service programs may be achieved. Therefore, the present study adopted a qualitative case study method to explore three high school students’ beliefs in regard to different contexts and thereby provide suggestions for incorporation of service activities and English learning in foreign countries.. 立. 政治大 Research Questions. ‧ 國. 學. To mend the research gap identified above, the present study addressed the following questions:. ‧. 1. What did the three senior high school students in Taiwan believe about English. Nat. sit. y. learning before international community service?. n. al. er. io. 2. What did they believe after international community service?. i n U. v. 3. Did the international community service experience have impact on the three. Ch. engchi. senior high school students' beliefs about English learning? In what ways?. Definition of Terms 1. International community service Service programs held in foreign countries where the target communities speak different languages from the members, who participate in and learn from the service activities. 2. Learner belief Dynamic and intricate thought, perception and feelings that are shaped or 5.

(16) reshaped through the interaction between learners' experience and learning environment (Barcelos, 2006). 3. English as a second language English spoken as a native language or often used as a media "for education, government, or business within [a] country" (Brown, 2007, p.25). 4. English as a foreign language English often learned as a subject or a skill rather than used as a language for communication in a natural setting; that is, there are "few immediate. 政治大. opportunities to use the language within the environment" (Brown, 2007, p.25). 5. English as a lingua franca. 立. English used as a common language mainly for communication between persons,. ‧ 國. 學. including both native-speakers and non-native speakers, who speak different. y. sit. io. er. 6. Context. Nat. Dewey, 2011).. ‧. mother languages and possess distinctive cultural backgrounds (Jenkins, Cogo &. A "socially constituted, interactively sustained, time-bound phenomenon" which. al. n. v i n Ch is dynamic through the interactive process of agents within the sphere (Goodwin engchi U & Duranti, 1992, p. 6).. 6.

(17) CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW This chapter attempts to address the concept of learner beliefs. First of all, the definition and functions of learner beliefs are introduced based on three approaches: normative, metacognitive and contextual (Barcelos, 2006). Then, empirical studies on learner beliefs in different contexts—English as a second language (ESL),. 治政大 learner beliefs are reviewed. In addition, the factors that shape or influence 立. English as a foreign language (EFL) and English as a lingua franca (ELF)—are. learner beliefs. In the end, the research gap is identified.. 學. ‧ 國. discussed, followed by the focus on contextual elements and the changeability of. ‧. Definition and Functions of Learner Beliefs. sit. y. Nat. In general, the term beliefs can refer to a "phase of thought" (Dewey, 1933, p.4). io. er. or a person's intricate and multiple ideas (Pajares, 1992; Rokeach, 1968). These. al. definitions characterize beliefs as the temporary and subjective values rather than. n. v i n C(Wenden, the objective and eternal truth However, it is difficult to define h e n g1986). chi U beliefs with simply few words. In the SLA field, the meaning of beliefs varies. according to different theoretical perspectives. In this section, the definition and the functions of learner beliefs are discussed based on Barcelos' (2006) classification: normative, metacognitive and contextual. The features that characterize the normative approach to beliefs are the preconception and misunderstandings of language learning. In general, learner beliefs in this approach are mostly investigated via quantitative methods (Cheng, 2001; Horwitz, 1985; Horwitz, 1988; Mantle-Bromley, 1995; Mohebi & Khodadady, 7.

(18) 2011; Peacock, 1999; Yang, 1999). For example, the Foreign Language Attitude Survey (FLAS) and the Beliefs About Language Learning Inventory (BALLI) have been adopted to explore the pre-service teachers' ideas of language learning and teaching (Horwitz, 1985). Since the mismatch between learner and teacher beliefs can lead to deficient learning outcomes, it is suggested that teachers turn students’ deviatory thought to the right direction that corresponds with teachers’ beliefs. Also, the students' notions have been used to predict their reactions to the course content and organization so that the instructor can anticipate problems and deal with them in. 政治大 influence of learners' thought on their learning has been scrutinized (Peacock, 1999). 立 advance. In addition to discrepancy between learner and teacher beliefs, the. The researcher has found that some of students' beliefs about English learning. ‧ 國. 學. correlate with their performance in proficiency tests; moreover, the values learners. ‧. held can make them arouse or lose interest in language learning. In sum, the. sit. y. Nat. normative approach claims that learner beliefs are students' misconception of. io. their learning problems.. er. language learning that teachers need to identify and rectify in order to ameliorate. al. n. v i n C h studies, the normative Though widely applied to empirical approach has been engchi U. criticized for its overemphasis on the generalization and the pitfalls of learner beliefs (Barcelos, 2006). Different from the normative approach, the metacognitive approach places more emphasis on learners' perception of their own language learning process. Aiming to explore individual ideas and attitude, this approach further adopts more participant-centered methods, such as semi-structured interviews and stimulated recall (Diab, 2005; Hsu, Cheng & Chern, 2012; Wenden,1986; Victori & Lockhart, 1995), instead of thoroughly depending on pre-determined questionnaires. As shown in the studies using this approach, learner beliefs are viewed as the metacognitive knowledge of language learning though 8.

(19) belief refers to subjective notions and values, which are acquired from incidental learning encounters, while knowledge is objective information and facts that are usually received from well-constructed educational occasions (Alexander and Dochy, 1995; Wenden, 1999). Since metacognitive knowledge is easily associated with metacognitive strategies, beliefs become an indicator of learner autonomy. As in Cotterall's (1995) study, six items of students' beliefs about English learning and their relation to autonomous learning have been examined. Therefore, in the metacognitive approach, beliefs about SLA can be defined as the metacognitive. 政治大. knowledge, which reflects individual experiences and personal attitudes toward self-directed learning.. 立. The former two approaches focus on learners' cognitive and metacognitive. ‧ 國. 學. understanding of language learning but fail to address the social context where. ‧. students' learning occurs (Barcelos, 2006). The contextual approach mends this. sit. y. Nat. limitation and redefines learner beliefs as "part of the culture of learning and. io. er. representations of language learning in a given society" (p. 26). Accordingly, as reflecting one's learning in a particular context, learner beliefs are changeable along. al. n. v i n with the variation in learningCenvironments. Also, U h e n g c h i with the emphasis on participants' interpretation and interaction with the contextual factors, studies which follow this. approach generally adopt a variety of research methods, including narrative inquiry, diaries, reflexive ethnography, individual and group interviews, observations and so on (De Costa, 2011; Hosenfeld, 2006; Ritzau, 2013; Yang & Kim, 2011). Through these different lens, a holistic and emic understanding of learner beliefs, emerging from language learning in a specific environment, can be achieved. Therefore, the contextual approach is commonly espoused in order to capture the dynamics of learner beliefs and the complexity of learning contexts. This study adopts the contextual approach because of the aim to explore the 9.

(20) change of learner beliefs about English learning in different contexts. In order to illustrate the interaction between beliefs and contextual elements, learner beliefs in this study are defined as students' "form of thought, as constructions of reality, ways of seeing and perceiving the world and its phenomena, co-constructed in [their] experiences and resulting from an interactive process of interpretation and (re)-signification" (Barcelos, 2006, p. 18, cited in Barcelos, 2008).. Learner Beliefs in Different Contexts English as a Second Language (ESL). 立. 政治大. The previous studies on ESL students have discussed learner beliefs about: (a). ‧ 國. 學. learning aptitude, (b) role of teachers, (c) status of English learning and (d) language ideology. First, learner beliefs about English learning abilities and efforts have been. ‧. explored (Amuzie & Winke, 2009; De Costa, 2011; Zhong, 2010). In the ESL. y. Nat. sit. contexts, researchers have found that learners held positive attitude toward their. n. al. er. io. efforts and learner autonomy. For example, the participant, in De Costa's (2011). i n U. v. study, thought of herself as an active English learner in Singapore. Also, from. Ch. engchi. observation and interviews on Chinese students in New Zealand, Zhong (2010) noticed that ESL learners who recognized their own efforts were encouraged to learn autonomously. Furthermore, Amuzie and Winke (2009) discovered that international students, who studied abroad in the United States, placed more emphasis on self-directed learning after experiencing learner-centered instruction in classes. Although students' beliefs about learner autonomy were all encouraged in the ESL contexts, these studies have revealed ESL learners' different views of self-efficacy. For example, in Zhong's paper, participants' beliefs about their own abilities to learn English became stronger due to the improvement of their language skills. On the 10.

(21) other hand, ESL learners felt less confident in their language capabilities after having studied in America more than six months but little explanation was addressed in the paper (Amuzie & Winke, 2009). To sum up, most ESL learners' beliefs about autonomous learning have been aroused or entrenched, while the influence of ESL contexts on self-efficacy has not reached an agreement yet. In addition to learning aptitude, previous studies on ESL learners' belief have paid attention to teachers' roles. Even though all of the participants have recognized the importance of learner autonomy, Amuzie and Winke (2009) have found that only. 政治大 their dependence on instructors. In other words, the belief in teachers as authority 立 the group of students who had stayed in America for more than half year reduced. can be undermined with long exposure to the learner-centered English classes in. ‧ 國. 學. ESL environment. Similarly, in Zhong's (2010) study, the Chinese students, who had. ‧. studied in New Zealand for approximately five months, held contradictory beliefs. sit. y. Nat. about learner autonomy and teachers' roles. While they took English learning as. io. er. their own responsibilities and were willing to manage their learning process, these learners still thought of teachers as knowledge transmitters and problem solvers.. al. n. v i n This phenomenon has been C attributed to the praiseU h e n g c h i for active learning and the respect for educators in Chinese culture. Therefore, to reshape ESL learners' beliefs in the roles of teachers requires long-term experience of independent learning. The third category of ESL learner beliefs is about the focus of English teaching and learning. Based on Yang and Kim's (2011) research, learners' ideas about English learning can be related to what they aim for and stress on in an ESL context. For instance, the participant believed that studying abroad in the United States can improve his English speaking fluency, which was required for being recruited in international company. As a result, he lived with a local roommate and attempted to seize abundant opportunities to speak English even with students from his home 11.

(22) country. However, his belief in the importance of oral fluency has been altered when he learned that fluent speaking skills were inadequate for future career. Later, he thought that his English learning in the ESL context should be directed to language accuracy and proficiency tests. In addition to the learning goal, the focus of English learning can be directed by students' past experience. As revealed in Zhong's (2010) study, Chinese ESL students still emphasized the importance of examination and correctness in English classes because the test-oriented and grammar-centered instruction in China. In brief, ESL learner beliefs about the status of English learning. 政治大 Last, language ideology has been adopted to examine the dynamic and 立. have varied with individually different objectives and experiences.. interactive level of learner beliefs in ESL contexts. According to De Costa (2011),. ‧ 國. 學. language ideology can refer to teachers' and students' perception of the standard or. ‧. ideal codes of the target languages. With the influence of educational policy and. sit. y. Nat. principles set up by government and school, "internationally acceptable and. io. er. grammatical" English rather than Singaporean English was considered the target language for English learners (p. 352). In other words, the so-called standard. al. n. v i n C hthe English dialectUwidely spoken by local English was seemed to be superior than engchi people. Thus, the ESL student, who emigrated from China and immigrated to. Singapore, believed in the English taught by school teachers and her performance complied with her instructor's requirement and criterion. In a nutshell, the previous studies on ESL learner beliefs have found that students placed more emphases on self-directed learning and standard English dialect, while their ideas about teachers' role and learning focus can differ from individual to individual.. 12.

(23) English as a Foreign Language (EFL) Recent research on learner beliefs in regard to the context of English as a foreign language (EFL) has explored students' ideas about: (a) learning aptitude, (b) role of teachers, and (c) status of English/English learning. First of all, researchers are curious about learners' beliefs about their own capacity to learn English (Mercer, 2011a; Mercer, 2011b; Mercer & Ryan, 2010). Mercer and Ryan (2010) adopted the psychological term, mindset, to describe EFL learners' concept of learning ability. The two extreme ends of the mindset continuum are "fixed mindset" and "growth mindset" (p. 436). The former refers to the belief that English learning depends on. 政治大. learners' natural gift for language, while the latter suggests that English learning can. 立. be achieved by learners' hard work. The previous study has revealed that two groups. ‧ 國. 學. of EFL learners—Japanese students and Austrian students—believed in the requirement of both talents and efforts in English learning. Fixed mindset correlated. ‧. with the acquisition of English pronunciation, the aim to be native-like and. y. Nat. io. sit. unconscious learning in study-abroad experience. On the other hand, growth mindset. n. al. er. was associated with vocabulary learning, fair level of English proficiency and use of. i n U. v. learning strategies. Also, in Mercer's (2011b) later study, a learner's beliefs about self. Ch. engchi. in foreign language learning have been observed. The participant's positive ideas about her own English learning were often elaborated with the identity as a learner, the personality of boldness and the skill of English speaking. With the longitudinal study, Mercer further found that self-related beliefs can vary according to different stages and tasks of English learning. Similarly, as shown in the comparison between two EFL students' mindset and self-concept in Mercer's (2011a) another paper, their beliefs about English learning abilities were different across individuals' learning experience. In sum, EFL learners' beliefs about their aptitude are intricately connected with multiple factors and actively dynamic throughout personal learning 13.

(24) process. Second, studies on EFL context also have paid attention to learners' beliefs about the roles of teachers (Amuzie & Winke, 2009; Barcelos, 2008; Wan, Low & Li, 2011). In Barcelos' (2008) study, the Brazilian students suggested that teachers transmitted accurate and sufficient linguistic knowledge. As a result, different attitudes were held toward teachers in private institutes against those in public school. Most students believed that teachers in the latter place were incompetent, whereas instructors in the former place were more adequate for English teaching and. 政治大 metaphorical images of teachers from freshmen, juniors and instructors in a 立. viewed as models for school teachers. In addition, Wan et al. (2011) have collected. university in China in order to understand their beliefs about the roles of English. ‧ 國. 學. teachers. The two groups of college students both regarded teacher as a "provider,". ‧. "nurturer" and "devotee" (p. 408), which also corresponded with the teacher. sit. y. Nat. participants' beliefs. However, the two student groups did not agree with the ideas. io. er. about teachers as guides in English learning. The freshmen were eager to learn at their own pace after getting rid of high teachers' control, while the juniors looked for. al. n. v i n C h study after graduating teachers' advice on future work or advanced from college. engchi U. Moreover, the disagreement about roles of teachers existed between the students and the instructors as well. All of the students proposed that their teachers provide them with cultural knowledge and take full charge in English classes, but the teachers did not think so. As revealed above, learners' beliefs about their instructors' roles have implied the expectation and the values of a teacher in an EFL context. Lastly, learner beliefs about the status of English and the focus of English learning in the EFL context have been scrutinized (Barcelos, 2008; Pan& Block, 2011). As in Barcelos's (2008) study, the Brazilian students reflected that learning English as a subject in secondary school was insufficient for future study in college. 14.

(25) Pan and Block (2011) have also found that, in China, English was viewed as an international language, with which successful communication with people worldwide can be attained. What is more, the importance of English for national economic development and individual social status has surpassed their mother language, Mandarin, in learners' mind. Nevertheless, participants in these two studies felt that the aim of English classes in school was to deal with high-stakes tests and therefore emphasize grammatical instruction. Pan and Block further attributed this belief to the great value of examination for the pupils in ancient China;. 政治大 extraordinary performance in official assessment. Even though the contemporary 立 that is, pupils could start their career and work for the authority if having. policy has been different, the traditional accent on examination still remains in the. ‧ 國. 學. currently formal education.. ‧. All in all, researchers have probed into learner beliefs about learning abilities,. sit. y. Nat. teachers' roles and nature of English learning to understand the interaction with. io. n. al. er. English learners and the EFL cultural environment.. Ch. engchi. English as a Lingua Franca (ELF). i n U. v. Exploration of learner beliefs in the ELF context has focused on: (a) learning aptitude, (b) status of English learning and (c) language ideology. Similar to the research on the ESL learner beliefs, self-efficacy and value of learner autonomy are addressed in studies on ELF students. Kaypak and Ortaçtepe (2014) have found that, Turkish students were aware that self-directed learning is important for successful communication with their peers. Moreover, these students felt confident with their English speaking skills when interacting with non-native English speakers, European people for example. In addition to learners' beliefs about their own 15.

(26) abilities, Naghdipour (2014) also investigated Iranian students' ideas about talents in English as they studied abroad in North Cyprus. For instance, most participants believed that young learners can acquire the target language more easily than adults; furthermore, the English speaking ability was perceived as a skill that every learner can possess through learning. Briefly, learners' self-confidence in language skills and their beliefs about characteristics of good learners are scrutinized to gain insight into how learners perceive English learning an ELF context. Additionally, learner beliefs about the focus of English learning in an ELF. 政治大 Through authentic use of English in a foreign country, students observed that the 立. environment have been discussed (Kaypak & Ortaçtepe, 2014; Ke & Cahyani, 2014).. interlocutors' English was different from the one they had learned in their home. ‧ 國. 學. countries. With the priority of successful communication with the non-native. ‧. English speakers, the importance of accurate grammar in English use was reduced.. sit. y. Nat. Ke and Cahyani (2014) further found that their participants would adjust the way. io. er. they use English to make their expression comprehensible, albeit ungrammatical. Meanwhile, they believed that people who could make adjustment of English. al. n. v i n C h speakers were more expression according to different English intelligent. However, engchi U grammar was still considered an important element for English learning. Speaking English with correct grammar, especially the rules acceptable for English native speakers, still lead to superiority among English users. In conclusion, ELF learners are willing to comprise the linguistic accuracy for the sake of communication but insist on learning grammatical concept for enhancement of English proficiency. Third, the previous studies have paid attention to the interaction between the ELF context and learners' language ideology. Despite their awareness of the importance of understanding different English dialects, learners' beliefs in Anglo-American English as the target language to learn remains (Csizér & Kontra, 16.

(27) 2012; Ke & Cahyani, 2014; Naghdipour, 2014). From participants' records and reflection of online chat with Indonesian peers, Ke and Cahyani (2014) noticed that Taiwanese students were still eager to speak like a native speaker, especially to acquire the native-like accent. What is more, participants' expression of "foreigners" in their narrative texts may refer to the English native-speakers only. Naghdipour (2014) further indicated that students did not believe in learning English from non-native speakers and even described the situation with the metaphor, "a blind is leading another blind cross the street" (p. 27). The participants suggested that. 政治大 language proficiency. Therefore, learners keep aiming to speak like a native speaker 立 speaking English with American or British accent can create an image of higher. though experiencing authentic use of English in communication with non-native. ‧ 國. 學. speakers in ELF contexts.. ‧. To summarize, the previous inquiries into learner beliefs about English learning. sit. y. Nat. in ELF contexts have mainly discussed how students' self-efficacy, attitude toward. io. al. n. non-native speakers.. er. grammar learning and language ideology are shaped through their interaction with. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. Factors Influencing/Shaping Learner Beliefs Empirical studies have not only investigated what beliefs learners hold in different contexts but also explored how these beliefs are shaped by several factors: (a) political values, (b) the utterance of beliefs, (c) emotion and (d) contextual difference. The first category refers to educational policy or social trends related to English learning. De Costa (2011) has observed that a Chinese immigrant student's beliefs about standard English were correspondent with the guideline and objectives proposed by the government and school in Singapore. For example, the belief that 17.

(28) Anglo-American English has higher value than Singaporean English derived from the pursuit of "internationally acceptable English" (p. 352). Also, such beliefs were influenced by teachers and peers' opinions about talented English learners. Based on these findings, students' language ideology can be shaped with the official policy of a country and a school as well as the in-class interaction with teachers and peers. The second factor, which features the concept of mediation based on sociocultural theory (Lantolf, 2006), is the language used to talk about beliefs. Alanen (2006) proposed the interviews as the process in which the young children. 政治大 with the interviewers (p. 64). In this respect, beliefs may be shaped align with 立. constructed and "appropriate[d]" language learning beliefs through the conversation. listeners' expectation as well as speakers' expression and explanation. As a result, the. ‧ 國. 學. interlocution between researchers and participants offer an interactive perspective. ‧. into learner beliefs.. sit. y. Nat. Furthermore, learner beliefs about English speaking are interrelated with. io. er. learner affects. Students' self-confidence and attitude toward others' English abilities can influence their feelings in class, while their emotions can shape their thought of. al. n. v i n C h For example,UAragão's (2011) speaking English in front of others reversely. engchi. participants felt embarrassed to speak English with teachers and peers who were viewed as better English speakers than themselves. Meanwhile, another participant believed that English classes without public speaking were the ideal environment for learning due to her dread of repeated failure in examination. According to these findings, affective factors play a critical role in English learners' ideas about English learning. Last but not least, learner beliefs can be shaped or reshaped when learning occurs in different contexts. According to the sociocultural approach, beliefs about SLA, as a "dynamic and social" system (Barcelos, 2006, p.20), are changeable along 18.

(29) with different language learning environment. Researchers have explored the influence of contextual factors on learner beliefs. Some studies have compared learner beliefs emerging from different instructional methods (Barcelos, 2008; Peng, 2011). For example, Peng's (2011) participant recognized the importance of English oral skills from the communicative tasks in college, which were distinctive from the grammar lectures in high school. However, the positive attitude toward the communication purpose switched due to the content-based medical course, which underlined the examination rather than communicative competence. Furthermore,. 政治大 Most of these previous studies have been conducted to understand how students' 立. some studies have focused on learner beliefs across EFL, ESL and ELF contexts.. beliefs interrelated with their English learning in foreign countries (Amuzie &. ‧ 國. 學. Winke, 2009; Kaypak & Ortaçtepe, 2014; Ke & Cahyani, 2014; Mercer, 2011a;. ‧. Naghdipour, 2014; Yang and Kim's, 2011; Zhong, 2010). For instance, in Mercer's. sit. y. Nat. (2011a) study, the Austrian participant, who had attended English classed in the. io. er. United Kingdom for one year, believed that staying in a foreign country is necessary for learning the target language. In addition to study-abroad experience, Ke and. al. n. v i n Cahyani (2014) probed into C the interaction between h e n g c h i UELF communication via the. Internet and learner beliefs about English learning. All in all, based on the results of the research reviewed in this section, the political, discourse, affective and contextual factors are considered to be influential for learner beliefs about English learning.. The Influence of Context on Learner Belief Among the factors reviewed above, the influence of context on changeability of learner beliefs about English learning has aroused researchers' interests (Amuzie & 19.

(30) Winke, 2009; Barcelos, 2008; Kaypak & Ortaçtepe, 2014; Ke & Cahyani, 2014; Mercer, 2011a; Naghdipour, 2014; Peng, 2011; Yang and Kim's, 2011; Zhong, 2010). The factors that would change or maintain beliefs were both discussed. From the previous study, four conditions under which students' beliefs changed have been recognized. First of all, different types of instruction can lead to increased or reduced dependence on teachers' roles. For example, Amuzie and Winke (2009) found that students' image of teachers as authority, derived from the English classes in EFL contexts, faded after they experience the learner-centered classes in America.. 政治大 countries enabled students to become aware of the importance of learner autonomy. 立 Moreover, the lack of real interaction with local people in English-speaking. Learners found that if they did not initiate conversation in English actively and take. ‧ 國. 學. responsibility for their own learning, few opportunities for English use would be. ‧. gained (Amuzie and Winke, 2009). Similarly, one of the participants in Yang and. sit. y. Nat. Kim's (2011) study reduced her reliance on teachers after classes decreased. In order. io. er. to compensate little social interaction in classes, she believed that frequent involvement in the activities held by the local community would be beneficial for. n. al. English learning.. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. Furthermore, the alteration of the goals can lead to change of learner beliefs. For example, as the other ESL student in Yang and Kim's (2011) paper directed his study-abroad objective from speaking fluency to high scores in proficiency tests, the original belief that staying in a foreign country can enhance his speaking skill has changed. With the alteration of learning goals, he considered that he could not learn from communication with American people in English because the language accuracy was not improved. In the end, he would rather live alone than share house with peers. Finally, learners' self-efficacy can be increased when they recognized the 20.

(31) enhancement of English skills from their learning in a foreign country. As Zhong (2010) stated, some of the participants did not believe that they could learn English well before studying abroad in New Zealand. Later, as feeling that their English proficiency advanced during study-abroad period, they became more confident and believed in their own language learning abilities. To sum up, according to the studies discussed above, the factors—style of instruction, opportunities for English use, English learning goals and recognition of language progress—in different contexts can reshape learner beliefs about teachers'. 政治大 Despite that the influence of contextual factors on learner beliefs was revealed, 立. role, self-directed learning, focus of English learning and learning aptitude.. researchers still found that learner beliefs about English learning did not change. ‧ 國. 學. after students studied in different contexts. Due to inadequate exposure to English. ‧. and short period of stay in foreign countries, Kaypak and Ortaçtepe (2014). sit. y. Nat. discovered that only 5 of 29 statements of learner beliefs became stronger, but others. io. er. remained the same. For instance, learners still felt uncomfortable to speak English with native speakers; also, they still believed in the international role of English.. al. n. v i n C(2009) Similarly, Amuzie and Winke two groups of students: one stayed U h e ncompared i h gc. in America no more than six months, and the other stayed more than half year. The results revealed that the latter group's belief about autonomous learning was stronger than the former group. In addition to limited English exposure and short duration of stay in new contexts, the satisfaction of original learning environment allows learners to keep their ideas about English learning. The participants in Ke and Cahyani's (2014) study, for example, still thought of Anglo-American English as the target language to learn as interacting with non-native speakers on the Internet. Since these students were content with their success in learning the native-speaker norms in their home country, 21.

(32) it was not necessary for them to adjust their notion of language ideology. In brief, learner beliefs about status of English learning, learner autonomy and standard English did not change on account of the drawbacks of new context and learners' satisfaction with previous context.. Identify the Gap The present study defines learner beliefs as students' thought, perception and feelings that emerge from the interaction between their English learning experience. 政治大. and the contexts where learning occurs. In this respect, learner beliefs can be. 立. dynamic and changeable according to variable features of learning environment.. ‧ 國. 學. Among the factors that shape learner beliefs, contextual elements have aroused researchers' interests most. Nevertheless, few studies on the change of learner beliefs. ‧. in different learning contexts have been conducted in Taiwan. Therefore, this study. Nat. sit. y. adopts a contextual approach to explore English learners' beliefs in regard to. n. al. er. io. Taiwanese EFL contexts as well as the changeability of their beliefs about English. i n U. learning in the ELF context of international community service.. Ch. engchi. v. According to the previous studies discussed above, multiple categories of learner beliefs, including the items in BALLI (Naghdipour, 2014), have been inquired. In order to gain a holistic understanding of students' beliefs about English learning, this study designed the interview protocol through combination and modification of the topics discussed in the contextual approach: (a) nature of English/English learning, (b) learning aptitude, (c) difficulties in English learning, (d) English learning strategies, (e) learning attitude and motivation and (f) roles of significant others.. 22.

(33) CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY Research Design In order to achieve a thick description and holistic understanding of learner beliefs about English learning in different contexts, a qualitative case study was employed in this thesis. According to Merriam (2009), qualitative research provides. 政治大 case study method aims to understand the "contemporary phenomenon in depth and 立 proper lens to scrutinize the participants' experience in a natural way. Moreover, a. ‧ 國. 學. within its real-life context" (Yin, 2009, p. 18), which, in the current study, referred to the international community service trip to remote districts in Southern Asia.. ‧. Multiple cases, namely the participants, were selected and their English learning. sit. y. Nat. beliefs were compared and contrasted to reveal the significant patterns of learner. io. al. n. experience.. er. beliefs shaped in Taiwanese EFL environment and in oversea community service. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. Context The service sites, supported by two area development programs of a religious non-profit organization, were at a fishing village and a slum district on the southwest coast of Sri Lanka, an island country located in the Indian Ocean in South Asia and reigned by the British government from 1814 to 1948 (Country Overview, 2013). The residents in these places encountered economic and sanitary problems, which caused famine and diseases. Children even suffered from family violence and were not allowed to go to school. Because of the difficult condition, most of the local 23.

(34) people in these areas did not speak English well, albeit English has been widely spoken in Sri Lanka and considered one of its official languages. The overall purpose of the international community service was to broaden students' world view and encourage them to become a responsible citizen through the cross-cultural interaction. This service project lasted five days and four nights, and all of the Taiwanese members stayed in the hotels arranged by the non-profit organization at night. On the first day, after a local manager presented and introduced the condition of the fishing village they were going to visit, the students,. 政治大 disabled children at a shelter. The next day, they were divided into several groups, 立 accompanied by local adolescent volunteers, cleaned the environment and fed. each of which consisted of 2-3 students, to visit aided children's families where they. ‧ 國. 學. prepared food, had lunch and chatted with the parents. During the chat, students. ‧. asked questions in English and the Sri Lankan interpreter would translate the. sit. y. Nat. questions. After the parents replied in their mother language, the interpreter would. io. er. translate their answers into English. On the third day, the students went to a slum district, and listened to the introduction of the service site first. Then, they were. al. n. v i n C inh a hospital and twoUschools respectively. In grouped into three teams to offer help engchi addition to Taiwanese students, each team also had several local teenagers.. Taiwanese students and Sri Lankan teenagers were asked to cooperate with each other to painted the bed frames in the hospital, built a playground in the children’s school or decorated a wall in a girl’s school. At night, all of the student members discussed the issues of social media in group with their peers and then presented their views about social media to the local teenagers in a workshop. On the fourth day, they had a trip in the mangrove forest to learn issues of environmental protection; later, they visited more local people to see how they live independently with the support from the charity. Similar to their visit to the children's families, the 24.

(35) student members were allowed to ask questions to these local residents. On the last day, in the morning, the students played games and exchanged their anticipation of future with local adolescent volunteers. In the afternoon, they went to a folk village to learn more about traditional culture in Sri Lanka. Before they left, a farewell ceremony was held and a nice dinner was treated by the mayor of the service site.. Participants The project was arranged by a non-profit organization and participated by one. 政治大. public and one private girls high school of northern Taiwan in the summer of 2014.. 立. There were 22 members, including 2 escorts, 3 faculty members and 17 students.. ‧ 國. 學. During the international community service, one of the escorts was an interpreter who was responsible for communicating with the local managers to arrange service. ‧. schedule and translating English into Chinese for the Taiwanese faculty and student. sit. y. Nat. members.. n. al. er. io. To join this project, the students firstly needed to submit the application form. i n U. v. and other documents, such as letters of recommendation or autobiography,. Ch. engchi. respectively required by their own school. Next, they would be interviewed by the school teachers. Finally, 17 students were selected primarily based on their motivation and understanding of the project rather than English proficiency. Among these students, 12 students were senior high school students while the other 5 students were junior high school students. To learn more about the students' English learning experiences in different stages, from elementary school to senior high school, this study recruited participants from the 12 high school students. Six students from the public school (henceforth, J senior high school), which was renowned for its dedication to language education and service learning, agreed to be 25.

(36) involved in the study and could keep to the interview schedule. In particular, this paper analyzed and reported three of the six students, given their willingness to submit the diaries and their abilities to articulate their thought and feelings in interviews. Each participant's English learning experiences will be briefly introduced in the next chapter. The profiles of the three participants are demonstrated in Table 1. Table 1. Profiles of the Three Female Participants Pseudonyms Years of English Learning. 10. Wendy. 10. ‧ 國. Bonnie. Temporary Stay in ESL Contexts before this Project. 政治大. None. GEPT: Elementary Level. New Zealand. None. the United States Singapore. ‧. 8. 立. Formal Education in English Native-speaking Countries. 學. Mary. English Proficiency Test and Results. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Data Collection. i n U. v. The data in the current study were collected from multiple sources in three. Ch. engchi. different stages: (a) conducting individual interviews with participants before the community service, (b) requiring students to keep diaries during the community service trip and (c) conducting individual interviews with students after the community service project. Individual Interviews Individual interviews were adopted because students can describe their unique and personal experiences in detail without worries about contempt or criticism from others. All of the individual interviews were semi-structured based on Carspecken's (1996) interview protocol design, which consisted of topic domains, lead-off 26.

(37) questions and possible follow-up questions. Since the current study desires to gain the specific information—students' beliefs about English learning in two different contexts, topic domains were developed to direct students' attention to this desire. Lead-off questions were devised as the concrete guide to initiate students' talk about their experience in detail. If the description was not clear enough, follow-up questions were used to foster students' elaboration of the events. However, in order to maintain the flexibility, the order and the wording of the interview questions were not restricted to the protocol but adjusted based on the situated interaction. With. 政治大 Chinese. Each participant was interviewed twice or three times before they left for 立 regard to students' English proficiency, all of the interviews were conducted in. the service site and four or five times after they came back to Taiwan respectively; in. ‧ 國. 學. other words, one participant had six to seven interviews in total. Each interview. Nat. Bonnie Wendy. a2 times l C 3 times h 2 times. sit. Post-service interview. er. Pre-service interview. n. Mary. io. Pseudonyms. y. Table 2. Numbers of Interviews. ‧. generally lasted for one to two hours (See Table 2).. iv n U4 times 4 times. engchi. 5 times. The pre-service interviews focused on students' past and current learning experiences and aimed to inquire into their beliefs about (a) nature of English/English learning, (b) learning aptitude, (c) difficulties in English learning, (d) English learning strategies, (e) learning attitude and motivation and (f) roles of significant others. (e.g., teachers, peers, parents, etc). These topics are developed through combining and modifying the categories of learner beliefs inquired in the previous studies of the contextual approach. Also, students' motivation and 27.

(38) expectation of the project were included in the pre-service interview (see APPENDIX A). As for the post-service interviews, learners' beliefs about English learning in terms of the six topics and their change were explored through the reflection on the interaction with international people met in the service (see APPENDIX B and C for the examples of post-service interview protocols). Additional questions were added based on students' diaries and the results of previous interviews. For example, the roles of Sri Lankan interpreters were inquired in Wendy's interview, for this. 政治大. participant mentioned those people very often in her diaries.. 立. ‧ 國. 學. Diaries. Since journal writing has been regarded as the most useful tool for reflection on. ‧. service learning (Jay, 2008), each of the participants was asked to keep a diary to. Nat. sit. y. record their on-site experience of the international community service. A guide of. n. al. er. io. journal writing was provided and introduced to the participants before they went to. i n U. v. Sri Lanka (see APPENDIX D). A total of three sets of entries, one for each. Ch. engchi. participant, were received. Students were asked to jot down the meaningful events and their views and/or feelings of the international community service. All of the content was written in Chinese since the participants were not confident in their English writing. In addition to text, students also used the photos they had taken in the service trip to illustrate their experience in the journal and in the following individual interviews. Both the diaries and the pictures served as the evidence of what they experienced and how they learned through the international community service.. 28.

(39) Other Documents In addition to interviews and diary entries, answers to simple questionnaires (see APPENDIX E) and participants' application forms were collected to have knowledge of participants' backgrounds. Also, self-recommendation letters submitted to the school director were used to learn more about students' motivation and expectation for the international community service. Other artifacts were provided by some of the participants and were used to triangulate their English learning experience in Taiwan and the international community service projects. For instance, with the chat record, Mary explained how and what she talked with foreign. 政治大. people met on a social networking website, in English. Also, Mary made a brochure. 立. to introduce her family, school life and Taiwanese food to people in Sri Lanka. A. ‧ 國. 學. digital copy of the brochure was reserved as a reference of her demonstration.. sit. y. ‧. Nat. Data Analysis. io. er. The individual interviews were audio-recorded and transcribed verbatim for the following analysis. The constant comparative method (Lincoln & Guba, 1985) was. al. n. v i n C hof the different contexts adopted to explore the influence on learner beliefs about engchi U English learning within individual participant and cross multiple cases. Through reading one participant's transcripts and constantly comparing her beliefs. constructed by his/her learning experience, initial codes emerged. Then, each of the beliefs before and after the international community service was compared so that coding scheme appeared. Next, other participants' data were analyzed and categorized based on the coding scheme; nevertheless, existing codes were modified, or new categories were added once the data did not fit in. Through the recursive process, significant patterns—the shaping or reshaping of one learner's beliefs in 29.

(40) different English learning contexts—within one student and cross multiple cases were revealed. Moreover, the factors of the two contexts that influence learner beliefs were respectively discussed after comparison and contrast of the beliefs from different participants.. Validation In order to achieve trustworthiness, three mechanisms were applied. First of all, the data were collected from multiple sources, including individual interviews,. 政治大. diaries and other documents, to triangulate participants' learning experience and. 立. opinions. Second, one peer debriefer, who was familiar with the qualitative case. ‧ 國. 學. study, was invited to provide comment on the interview protocols, to examine the analysis for elimination of the researchers' personal bias or prejudice, and to give. ‧. advice for the uncertainty researcher encountered in the present study. The last and. Nat. sit. y. "the most crucial technique" was member check (Lincoln & Guba, 1985, p. 308).. n. al. er. io. After the pre-service interviews, questions for clarification were added if. i n U. v. participants' replies were not clear in the previous inquiries. Moreover, each. Ch. engchi. participant received a summary of her beliefs based on their answers to alleviate researchers' misinterpretation and to clarify the reasons for the changed and non-changed beliefs after the international community service to correct misunderstanding and misinterpretation. With triangulation, peer debriefing and member checks, the credibility of this study has been enhanced.. Ethics The names of the participants in this study were pseudonyms so that their real identities can be protected. According to their reflection, the participants introduced 30.

(41) themselves with their English names in Sri Lanka. To be consistent, the pseudonyms were selected from the names commonly used in English-speaking countries. During the recruitment, permission letters (see APPENDIX F and G) were delivered to the students and their parents to ensure their acceptance and understanding of the research. In addition to the documents marked in the letters, other artifacts were also collected during the interviews if the participants allowed the researcher to do so.. 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. 31. i n U. v.

(42) 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. 32. i n U. v.

(43) CHAPTER 4 RESULTS In this chapter, the three participants' beliefs about English learning will be presented with the themes emerged from the data. In each theme, the beliefs held by the participant before and after the international community service will be introduced first, followed by the discussion of the factors that lead to the changed or unchanged belief.. 學. ‧ 國. 立. 政治大 Mary. Summary of Mary's Background. Mary was the only participant that did not learn English until attending formal. ‧. English classes scheduled in elementary school. At that time, the English teacher. sit. y. Nat. skipped certain parts of the lecture because most of her classmates had learned. n. al. er. io. English beforehand. Different from the majority in her class, she could not keep up. v. with the teacher's pace. In order to deal with the problem, she asked her mother to. Ch. engchi. i n U. send her to a private language institute, where she experienced enjoyable English learning for nearly six years. Afterwards, her performance was improved. She even achieved high scores in the English tests without much preparation in both elementary school and junior high school. Now, as a senior high school student, Mary noticed that the level of exams advanced and more studies were required. Therefore, she attended English tutoring classes once a week. In addition to English learning in formal education, Mary made international pen pals and chatted with them on Facebook in English to learn more about the life in the western countries. Since childhood, she has dreamed of an international marriage with a westerner, 33.

(44) which motivated her to enhance her English abilities. Mary's Beliefs about English Learning British and Northern American English as the standard. For Mary, Northern American and British English is the target language that English learners should aim for. This belief was shaped by her experience of English learning and the widespread of Western culture in Taiwan. As she remembered, When I was an elementary school student, most of the international teachers I met in Hess were American and British. Probably because I have received. 政治大. such message [that English speakers are American and British people] since. 立. youth..., I feel that their English are real English. Yes, that's right. ..... ‧ 國. 學. (Interview 021515). ‧. Mary started attending additional English classes in a private language institute after. y. Nat. io. sit. encountering difficulties in learning English in school in her third grade of. n. al. er. elementary school. At that time, the English speakers she met first were the. Ch. i n U. v. international teachers from America and the United Kingdom. This first exposure to. engchi. English made her think that the "English" spoken by the teachers was the "real" English. After learning English with them for years, she even considered these teachers the model of English learners; that is, she imitated their accents and was eager to speak English as how American, Canadian and British do. Furthermore, western movies, which are usually produced by Northern American and Western European countries, have become popular in Taiwan since Mary's childhood. In these films, she found that most of the characters spoke either American or British English. Because she was fond of the handsome and light-skinned actors and imagined getting married with one of them in the future, to 34.