北 TAγ 叫 vad

斗罔

口 íll

北 TAγ 叫 vad

師大學報第卅二期

Makita (1968) has reported that Japanese children rarely have reading disabilities

,

in contrast to the situation in the United States. (This is usually attributed to the 主主旦旦之) Erickson et al . (1972)

,

howeVer

,

provide data that the phonetic associations of 坦且主 may be stronger than their graphic association.

Rozin et al. (1971) report success with students who have reading problems by teaching them to read English represented by Chinese characters. They suggest that the succèas of their program can be attributed to the fact that 'Chinese orthography maps directly into the meaningful unit' (Rozin

,

1971

,

p. )264). That is

,

the characters interpret into speech at the level of words rater than of phonemes.

Therefore

,

they have come to the conclusion

,

that since logographic writing has printed forms that do not contain information about pronunciation

,

people must be able to read without speech recoding.

Efficacy of Logoraphic Writing Systems_:for Memorization

Memory is defined as the power of 'reproducing and identifying what has been learned or experienced' (Webster's Dictionary). Memory has many aspects. 工 t requires the employment of more than one mechanism within the brain.

The nerve cells and nerve branches of some parts of the brain

,

or perhaps the synapses which join the branch of one cell to the body of another cell

,

are altered by the preserve of different chemical neurotrausmitters and by the passageof a stream of electrical potentials

.

This is what makes permanent patterns possible. This is the basis of all memory (Penfield and Roberts

,

1959

,

p. 228).

Some aphasics have a memory disσrder which produces what appears to be a reading disability. These people cannot remember much of what they read so that by the time they have read through a short paragraph they have forgotten how

心理認知與漢字閱謂

i t started. They cannot be interested in reading a book or even a newspaper artic1e because they cannot retain enough to deve10p any continuity. There are some aphasics who read a10ud perfect1y

,

even with inf1ection at times

,

and who d。

not understand a sing1e word they have read. These same words can be spoken to them by others and they may understand :them we11 when they hear othe'rs say them

,

depending upon their abi1ity to comprehend speech. Meaning

,

however

,

seems to be 'disconnected from the words' when they read a10ud or si1ient1y by themse1ves (Broida

,

1979

,

p.60-61) Treatment för reading abi1ity for aphasia patients invo1ves the reading of actua1 pictures. Either objects or pictures of objects can be used with their names on cards.

工 f action picture,s are used when verbs are slected as the task

,

a verb is printed on the card instead of a noun. When working on prepositions

,

the card can read simp1y: 'on the chair' or 'under the box.' The desired response is for the patient to p1ace the 'cards according to what the words meani for exa呻 1e ， 'run

,'

þy a picture of a boy running. When a p?-.tient becomes competent in enough parts of speech and sentences so that he can be introduced to paragraphs

,

his memory span must be carefu11y checked. 工 f that seems to present no prob1em and he hand1es paragraphs we11

(therapists check for this competence with true anu fa1se questions presented after .every paragraph)

,

then he may be ready for short stories or newspaper artic1es (Broida

,

1979

,

p. 66-67).

From Broida's exp1anation one can see that Eng1ish reading a'bi1i ty whioh was 10st in the memory of the aphas1c can be reca11ed gradua11y by using objects or pictures of objects. Yet even if one can read the Eng1ish words a10ud perfect1y

,

this do 包 s not prove s/h8 can understand what s/he reads. The words have to be re1ated to some visib1e rea1 objects or pictures in order to be restored to memory. On the other hand

,

in re1ation to Chinese characters there are

師大學報第卅二期

at least three experiments that support the idea that the logographic writing system is more efficient for memorization than an alphabetic writing system: Rozin

,

et al.

,

(1971)

,

Liberman et al.

,

(1970)

,

Bruce and Kinsbourne (1974)

,

Hardyck

,

Tzeng

,

and Wang (1978)

,

Tzeng and Wang ( 1983) •

American Children with Reading Problems can Easily Leé!rn_tQ Read English Represented by Chinese Characters

Rozin~ Poritsky

,

and Sotskydecided to teacha group of seco

n,

d-grade school children wïth serious reading problems some ideographic scripts. They summarize the reading disabl-lities of the children as follows:

They (the children) had diffiçulty (i) in identifying words by initial or final sounds and (i1) i~ combining a sequence of letters into a known English word. Many

。 f the children did not know all the alphabetic symbol-sound correspondences

,

which was surprising since they seemed .to have excellent memories ánd could be taught arbitrary new symbols rather quickly (p. 1264).

They . hypothesized that since logographic scripts such as Chinese characters have a one-tö-one correspondence between imageand meaning

,

children would not need to break down the word into phonemesin order tσsound i t outi consequently

,

they should be able to read Chinese with little difficulty. Their results support their hypothesie.

They suggested that the success of .their program can be attributed to the fact that Chinese characters

‘

^mapinto

speech at the level of words rather than of phonemes' (p.1264).

Liberman gives further evidence both from speech output (articulation) and input (perception) that the alphabetic unit or phoneme is unnatural or at least highly abstract (Liberman et al.

,

1970). But the Chinese logographic ~ystem ，

which 'maps directly into themeaningful units

,'

can be more efficient for memorization.

心理認知與摸字閱讀

The Lateratization Effects

Bruce and Kinsbourne (1974) reported an experiment in which subjects were asked to remember comlex visual forms.

When done as a direct recognition task

,

left visual field-right hemisphere performance was slightly superior.

However

,

when subjects had to perform the figure recognition task while retaining a list of words in memory

,

right visual field performace was superior.

Hardyck

,

.Tzeng

,

and Wang (1978) conducted an exp目 riment

utilizing tachistoscopic presentation of verbal an~ spatial stimuli to visual half-~ields. A basic premise is that verbal stimuli are process 色 d in the left. hemisphere and visuospatial stimuli in the right hemisphere. stimuli presented exclusively in the 'right visual field serving the left hemisphere (RVF-LH) are processed more quickly and with fewer errors because they are received directly at a central verbal processor in the left hemisphere. Visuospatial problems such as pattern recognition are processed most effectively in the right hemisphere

,

allowing an advantage in processing speed and accuracy for stimuli shown to the left visual field projecting to the right hemisphere

(RVF-RH). The subjects were twenty fluent Chinese-English bilinguals (17 Chines

,

3 Americans)

,

who were asked t。

compare semantic judgments of same-different across the tw。

languages. The mean number of Chinese characters recalled was 5.40 for the right visual field-left hemisphere and' 3.67 for the left visual field-right hemisphere. The right visual field-left hemisphere and 2.40 for the left visual field-right hemisphere. Words most often recalled were those

。 riginally presented in the right visual field-left hemisphere (p. 65).

工 n the Hardyck et al. experiment onecan see very clearly that the number of Chinese characters is larger than the number of English words recalled by Chinese-Eng工 ish

師大學報第卅二期

bilinguals. This is furtber evidence that the Chinese Characters may be more efficient for memorization.

Differing Patterns of Memory

Tzeng and Wang (1983) reported a color experiment and a number experiments conducted by J. R. stroop in 1935

,

which supports the contention that the relation between script and speech underlying all types of writing systems plays an important role in the reading process. 'A reader of a particular script must assimilate the orthographic characteristics of that system.' That is to say

,

if the organization of the components of a logograph is important for understanding

,

then the reader had to pay special attention to the position of every element in the logograph.

Therefore

,

the proces~ing of logographs should involve more visual memory than the processing of alphabetie scrip1三﹒

V1. Conclusion

When viewed together the visual

laterali~ation

effect

,

the aphasic study

,

and the efficiency of memorization

,

äll The special characteristics of the Chihese language are tones and its pictographic characters. From the psycholinguistic point of view therefore

,

~earning the Chinese language involves not pnly the left hemisphere for usual language learnin~. fuhctions

,

but also the right hemispherefor th色 .picture-visual functions reguired to read Chinese writing. Because the Chinese character is a good

~xample of ideographic or morphemic writing in which. each symbol represents a unit meaning

,

i t ^{l S} more efficient for memorization than phonological orthographies like English.

心理認知與漢字閱讀

Therefore

,

in teaching Chlnese as a second language

,

one has to emphasize the pictorïal feature; thus leading students to learn the chinese written language efficeintly.

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,

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師大學報第卅二期

在文檔中 Psycholinquistic Interference of Characters in Reading Chinese (頁 23-32)