參考文獻 參考文獻 參考文獻
Abbott, D.H., Keverne, E.B., Bercovitch, F.B., Shively, C.A., Mendoza, S.P., Saltzman, W., Snowdon, C.T., Ziegler, T.E., Banjevic, M., Garland Jr., T., & Sapolsky, R.M.(2003) . Are subordinates always stressed? A comparative analysis of rank differences in cortisol levels among primates. Hormones and Behavior 43. 67-82.
Adamo, S.A. & Hoy, R.R.(1995). Agonistic behaviour in male and female field crickets, Gryllus bimaculatus, and how behavioural context influences its expression. Animal Behaviour 49, 1491-1501.
Ashraf, S. I., Alonso, M., Vianna, M.R.M., Depino, A.M., Souza T.M., Pereira P., Szapiro G., Viola H., Pitossi F., Izquierdo I., Medina, J.H.(2002). BDNF-triggered events in the rat hippocampus are required for both short- and long-term memory formations.
Hippocampus 12(4), 551-560.
Alexander, R. D.(1961). Aggressive territoriality and sexual behaviour in field crickets (Orthoptera: Gryllidae). Behaviour 17, 130-223.
Bakker, T. C. M., Bruijn, E. & Sevenster, P.(1989). Asymmetrical effects of prior winning and losing on dominance in sticklebacks (Gasterosteus aculeatus). Ethology 82, 224-229.
Bakker, T. C. M. & Sevenster, P.(1983). Determinants of dominance in male stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus). Behaviour 86, 55-71.
Baenninger, R.(1970). Visual reinforcement, habituation, and prior social experience of Siamese fighting fish. Journal of Comparative Physiology and Psychology 71, 1-5.
Beacham, J.L.(1988). The relative importance of body size and
aggressive experience as determinants of dominance in pumpkinseed sunfish, Lepomis gibbosus. Animal Behaviour 36, 621-623.
Beaugrand, J., Goulet, C. & Payette, D.(1991). Outcome of dyadic conflict in male green swordtail fish, Xiphophorus helleri : effects of body size and prior dominance. Animal Behaviour 41, 417-424.
Beaugrand, J.P. & Goulet, C.(2000). Distinguishing kinds of prior dominance and subordination experiences in males of green swordtail fish (Xiphophorus helleri). Behavioural Processes 50(2-3).
131-142.
Beaugrand, J., Payette, D. & Goulet, C.(1996). Conflict outcome in male green swordtail fish dyads (Xiphophorus helleri) :interaction of body size, prior dominance/subordination experience, and prior residency.
Behaviour 133, 303–319.
Brick, O.(1999). A test of the sequential assessment game: the effect of increased cost of sampling. Behavioral Ecology 10, 726-732.
Briffa, M. & Sneddon L.U.(2007). Physiological constraints on contest behaviour. Functional Ecology 21, 627-637.
Bolyard, K.J. & Rowland, W.J.(2000). The effects of spatial context and social experience on the territorial aggression of male threespine stickleback. Behaviour 137, 845–864.
Bryant, M. J. & Grant, J. W.A.(1995). Resource defence, monopolization and variation of fitness in groups of female Japanese medaka depend on the synchrony of food arrival. Animal behaviour 49, 1469-1479.
Chase, I.D., Bartolomeo, C., & Dugatkin, L.A.(1994). Aggressive interactions and inter-contest interval: how long do winners keep
Costa, W.J.E.M.(2004). Kryptolebias, a substitute name for Cryptolebias, Kryptolebiatinae (Cyprinodontiformes: Rivulidae). Neotropical Ichthyology 2, 107-108.
Davis, W.P., Taylor, D.S. & Turner, B.J.(1990). Field observations of the ecology and habits of mangrove rivulus (Rivulus marmoratus) in Belize and Florida (Teleostei: Cyprinodontiformes: Rivulidae).
Ichthyological Exploration of Freshwaters 1, 123-134.
Daws, A.G., Grills, J., Konzen, K. & Moore, P.A.(2002). Previous experiences alter the outcome of aggressive interactions between males in the crayfish, Procambrus clarkii. Marine and Freshwater Behavior and Physiology 35, 139–148.
Devenport, L.D & Devenport, J.A.(1994). Time-dependent averaging of foraging information in least chipmunks and golden-mantled ground squirrels. Animal Behaviour 47, 787-802.
Dodson, G. N., & Schwaab, A.T.(2001). Body size, leg autotomy, and prior experience as factors in the fighting success of male crab spiders, Misumenoides formosipes. Journal of Insect Behavior 14(6), 841-855.
Drummond, H. & Canales, C.(1998). Dominance between booby nestlings involves winner and loser effects. Animal Behaviour 55, 1669-1676.
Earley, R.L., Attum, O. & Eason, P.(2002). Varanid combat: perspectives from game theory. Amphibia-Reptilia 23, 469-485.
Earley, R.L. & Hsu, Y.(2007). Reciprocity between endocrine state and contest behavior in the killifish, Kryptolebias marmoratus.
Englund, G. & Olsson, T.I.(1990). Fighting and assessment in the net-spinning caddis larva. Arctopsyche ladogensis: a test of the sequential assessment game. Animal Behaviour 39, 55-62.
Enquist, M. & Leimar, O.(1983). Evolution of fighting behaviour:
decision rules and assessment of relative strength. Journal of theoretical Biology 102, 387-410.
Francis, R.C.(1983). Experiential effects on agnostic behavior in the paradise fish, Macropodus opercularis. Behaviour 85, 292-313.
Franck, D. & Ribowski, A.(1987). Influences of prior agonistic experiences on aggression measures in the male swordtail (Xiphorus helleri). Behaviour 103, 217-240.
Frey, D.F. & Miller, R.J.(1972). The establishment of dominance relationships in the blue gourami Trichogaster trichopterus (Pallus).
Behaviour 42, 8-62.
Haller, J.(1992). Group size modifies the patterns and muscle carbohydrate effects of aggression in Betta splendens. Physiology and Behavior 52, 287-290.
Haller, J. & Wittenberger, C.(1988) Biochemical energetics of hierarchy formation in Betta splendens. Physiology & Behavior 43(4), 447-450.
Hammerstein, P. & Parker, G.A.(1982). The asymmetric war of attrition.
Journal of Theoretical Biology 96, 647-682.
Harrington, R.W. Jr.(1961). Oviparous hermaphroditic fish with internal self-fertilization. Science 134, 1749-1750.
Harrington, R.W., Jr.(1963). Twenty-four-hour rhythms of internal self-
marmoratus. Physiological Zoology 36, 325-6341.
Harrington, R.W., Jr.(1967). Environmentally controlled induction of primary male gonochorists from eggs of the self-fertilizing hermaphroditic fish, Rivulus marmoratus. Biological Bulletin 132, 174-199.
Harrington, R.W., Jr.(1968). Delimitation of the thermolabile phenol- critical period of sex determination and sex differentiation in the ontogeny of the normally hermaphroditic fish Rivulus marmoratus.
Physiological Zoology 41, 447-460.
Hemelrijk, C. K.(1999). An individual-oriented model of the emergence of despotic and egalitarian societies. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London Series B 166, 361–369.
Hsu, Y. & Wolf, L.L.(1999). The winner and loser effect: integrating multiple experiences. Animal Behaviour 57, 903-910.
Hsu, Y. & Wolf, L.L.(2001). The winner and loser effect: what fighting behaviours are influenced? Animal Behaviour 61, 777-786.
Hsu, Y., Earley, R.L., & Wolf, L.L.(2006). Modulation of aggressive behavior by fighting experience: Mechanisms and contest outcomes.
Biology review 80, 1-42.
Hsu, Y., Lee, S.P., Chen, M.H., Yang, S.Y. & Cheng, K.C.(2008).
Switching assessment strategy during a contest: fighting in killifish Kryptolebias marmoratus. Animal Behaviour 75, 1641-1649.
Huehner, M.K., Schramm, M.E. & Hens, M.D.(1985). Notes on the behavior and ecology of the killifish Rivulus marmoratus poey 1880 (Cyprinodontidae). Florida Scientist 48, 1-7.
of bodyweight, antler length, resource value and experience on fight duration and intensity in fallow deer. Animal Behaviour 68, 213-221.
Jenssen, T.A., Decourcy, K.R. & Congdon, J.D.(2005). Assessment in contests of male lizards (Anolis carolinensis): how smaller males should respond when size matters? Animal Behaviour 69, 1325-1336.
Khazraie, K. & Campan, M.(1999). The role of prior agonistic experience in dominance relationships in male crickets Gryllus bimaculatus (Orthoptera: Gryllidae). Behavioural Processes 44, 341-348.
Kristensen, I.(1970). Competition in three cyprinodont fish species in the Netherlands Antilles. Studies of the Fauna of Curacao and other Caribbean Islands 119, 82-101.
Lailvaux, S.P., Herrel, A., Vanhooydonck, B., Meyers, J.J. & Irschick, D.J.(2004). Performance capacity, fighting tactics and the evolution of life-stage male morphs in the green anole lizard (Anolis carolinensis). Proceedings of the Royal Society of London Series B-Biology Sciences 271, 2501- 2508.
Lande, R.(1976). Natural selection and random genetic drift in phenotypic evolution. Evolution 30(2), 314-334.
Lattal, K.M. & Abel, T.(2004). Behavioral impairments caused by injections of the protein synthesis inhibitor anisomycin after contextual retrieval reverse with time. National Acad Sciences 101(13), 4668- 4671.
Lin, H. C. & Dunson, W. A.(1999). Phenotypic plasticity in the growth of the self-fertilizing hermaphroditic fish Rivulus marmoratus. Journal
Mackney, P.A. & Hughes, R.N.(1995). Foraging behaviour and memory window in sticklebacks. Behaviour 132, 1241-1253.
Marden, J. H. & Waage, J.(1990). Escalated damselfly territorial contests are energetic wars of attrition. Animal Behaviour 39, 954-959.
Maren, S. & Fanselow, M.S.(1996). The amygdala and fear conditioning:
has the nut been cracked? Neuron 16(2), 237-40.
Marler, C.A. & Moore. M.C.(1988). Evolutionary costs of aggression revealed by testosterone manipulations in free-living male lizards.
Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 23(1), 21-26.
Martin, K.C., Casadio, A., Zhu, X., Rose, Y.E.J.C., Chen, M., Bailey, C.H.
& Kandel, E.R.(1997) Synapse-specific, long-term facilitation of aplysia sensory to motor synapses: a function for local protein synthesis in memory storage. Cell 91, 927-938.
Maynard Smith, J.(1974). The theory of games and the evolution of animal conflicts. Journal of Theoretical Biology 47, 209-221.
Maynard Smith, J. & Parker, G.A.(1976). The logic of asymmetric contests. Animal Behaviour 24, 159-175.
Maynard Smith, J. & Price, G.R.(1973). The logic of animal conflict.
Nature 246, 15-18.
McDonal, A. L., Heimstra, N. W. & Damkot, D. K.(1968). Social modification of agonistic behaviour in fish. Animal Behaviour 16, 437–441.
McPeek, M.A. & Crowley, P.H.(1987). The effects of density and relative size on the aggressive behaviour, movement and feeding of damselfly larvae (Odonata: Coenagrionidae). Animal Behaviour
Mesterton-Gibbons, M., Marden, J.H. & Dugatkin, L.A.(1996). On wars of attrition without assessment. Journal of Theoretical Biology 181, 65-83.
Murai, M. & Blackwell, P.R.(2005). More signaling for earlier mating:
conspicuous male claw waving in the fiddler crab, Uca perplexa.
Animal behaviour 70, 1093-1097.
Neat, F.C., Taylor, A.C. & Huntingford, F.A.(1998). Proximate costs of fighting in male cichlid fish: the role of injuries and energy metabolism. Animal Behaviour 55, 875-882.
Nosil, P.(2002). Food fights in house crickets, Acheta domesticus, and the effects of body size and hunger level. Canadian Journal of Zoology 80, 409-417.
Olsson M.(1993). Contests success and mate guarding in male sand lizards, Lacerta agilis. Animal Behaviour 46, 408-409.
Parker G.A,(1974). Assessment strategy and the evolution of fighting behaviour. Theory Biology 47, 223-243.
Payne, R.J.H. & Pagel, M.(1997). Why do animals repeat displays?
Animal Behaviour 54, 109-119.
Payne, R.J.H.(1998). Gradually escalating fights and displays: the cumulative assessment model. Animal Behaviour 56, 651-662.
Robertson, C.S., Foltz, R., Grossman, R.G. & Goodman, J.C.(1986).
Protection against experimental is chemic spinal cord injury. Journal of Neurosurger, 64(4), 633-42.
Rowland, W. J.(1989). The ethological basis of mate choice in male threespine sticklebacks, Gasterosteus aculeatus. Animal Behaviour
Sakakura, Y., Soyano, K., Noakes, D.L.G., & Hagiwara, A.(2006).
Gonadal morphology in the self-fertilizing mangrove killifish, Kryptolebias marmoratus. Ichthyological Research 53, 427-430.
Schuett, G.W,(1997). Body size and agonistic experience affect dominance and mating success in male copperheads. Animal Behaviour 54, 213-224.
Shanks, A.L.(2002). Previous agonistic experience determines both foraging behavior and territoriality in the limpet Lottia gigantean (Sowerby). Behaviour Ecology 13(4), 467-471.
Stutt, A.D. & Willmer, P.(1998). Territorial defense in speckled wood butterflies: do the hottest males always win? Animal Behaviour 55, 1341-1347.
Taylor, D.S.(1990). Adaptive specializations of the cyprinodont fish Rivulus marmoratus. Florida Scientist 53, 239-248.
Taylor, D.S., Fisher, M.T., & Turner, B.J.(2001). Homozygosity and heterozygosity in three populations of Rivulus marmoratus.
Environmental Biology of Fishes, 61(4), 455-459.
Van De Poll, N. E., De Jonge, F., Van Oyen, H.G. & Van Pelt,J.(1982).
Aggressive behaviour in rats: effects of winning orlosing on subsequent aggressive interactions. Behavioural Processes 7, 143–155.,
Warner, R.R.(1978). The evolution of hermaphroditism and unisexuality in aquatic and terrestrial vertebrates. In Contrasts in behavior.(Eds.
E. Reese and F. J. Lighter), 77-101. Wiley Interscience, New York, New York, USA.
behaviour in a jumping spider. Animal Behaviour 36, 321-326.
Whitehouse, M.E.A.(1997). Experience influences male-male contests in the spider Argyrodes antipodiana (Theridiidae: Araneae). Animal Behaviour 53(5), 913-923.
Wootton, R.J.(1976). The biology of sticklebacks. Academic Press, New York.
Young, K.A.(2003). Evolution of fighting behavior under asymmetric competition: an experimental test with juvenile salmonids.
Behavioral Ecology 14, 127-134.
圖表
Loser effect (L-N) Winner effect (W-N)
7dL-N
Loser effect (L-N) Winner effect (W-N)
表 2 不同品系是否造成各攻擊性行為上之勝者效應與敗者效應程度上的差異(Bonferroni adjusted α=0.005)
*P-value
Experience effect
0d WN 1d WN 2d WN 4d WN 7d WN 0d LN 1d LN 2d LN 4d LN 7d LN
G4 5.59 0.84 3.17 2.45 1.13 4.47 8.84 8.69 4.74 3.00
Initiating display
P* (0.232) (0.933) (0.529) (0.653) (0.890) (0.315) (0.065) (0.069) (0.315) (0.559)
G4 2.97 5.94 4.10 5.72 4.10 4.20 5.90 1.33 4.97 3.61
Initiating attack
P (0.563) (0.204) (0.393) (0.221) (0.393) (0.380) (0.207) (0.857) (0.290) (0.461) G4 2.77 1.19 1.93 13.27 5.42 3.56 12.30 0.49 5.94 1.17 Escalation rate
P (0.597) (0.880) (0.748) (0.010) (0.247) (0.469) (0.015) (0.975) (0.204) (0.884)
G4 1.24 8.54 2.48 0.25 4.69 9.45 8.07 9.63 0.48 2.92
Escalated
contest P (0.871) (0.074) (0.649) (0.993) (0.321) (0.051) (0.045) (0.047) (0.976) (0.572) G4 2.37 4.83 0.78 9.47 5.39 1.88 1.16 12.48 4.86 3.09 The probability of
W or L individual winning against a naive opponent
Non-escalated
contest P (0.668) (0.305) (0.941) (0.050) (0.250) (0.759) (0.884) (0.014) (0.302) (0.544)
表 3 一個月前的勝敗經驗是否造成各攻擊性行為上之勝者效應與敗者效應程度上的差異 (Bonferroni adjusted α=0.005)
*P-value
Experience effect
0d WN 1d WN 2d WN 4d WN 7d WN 0d LN 1d LN 2d LN 4d LN 7d LN
G1 2.95 0.49 6.70 0.08 1.29 0.11 1.29 0.33 0.00 4.24
Initiating display
P* (0.154) (0.569) (0.018) (1.000) (0.396) (0.783) (0.396) (0.776) (1.000) (0.079)
G1 0.74 6.12 4.00 0.50 0.08 0.31 2.01 1.31 0.33 0.00
Initiating attack
P (0.567) (0.021) (0.088) (0.571) (1.000) (0.758) (0.258) (0.393) (0.773) (1.000)
G1 0.33 3.66 0.00 3.97 0.73 0.08 3.37 2.95 0.00 4.09
Escalation rate
P (0.776) (0.081) (1.000) (0.089) (0.571) (1.000) (0.128) (0.153) (1.000) (0.085)
G1 0.17 1.79 0.01 0.04 3.02 0.48 0.04 0.29 1.85 0.28
Escalated
contest P (0.739) (0.255) (1.000) (1.000) (0.128) (1.000) (1.000) (1.000) (0.370) (0.710)
G1 2.12 3.33 3.86 0.07 0.21 0.50 1.03 0.20 0.14 3.82
The probability of W or L individual winning against a naive opponent
Non-escalated
contest P (0.517) (0.129) (0.119) (1.000) (0.685) (0.679) (0.435) (1.000) (1.000) (0.159)
表 4 體長是否造成各攻擊性行為上之勝者效應與敗者效應程度上的差異(Bonferroni adjusted α=0.005)
*P-value
Experience effect
0d WN 1d WN 2d WN 4d WN 7d WN 0d LN 1d LN 2d LN 4d LN 7d LN
L-R χ12
1.18 0.43 2.22 0.05 0.28 0.06 1.38 1.22 0.58 2.50
Initiating display
p* (0.277) (0.510) (0.136) (0.815) (0.596) (0.804) (0.240) (0.270) (0.446) (0.114) L-R χ12
2.48 0.95 0.60 0.19 0.66 0.41 0.86 0.17 2.46 0.03
Initiating attack
p (0.115) (0.330) (0.437) (0.661) (0.418) (0.521) (0.354) (0.677) (0.117) (0.864) L-R χ12
0.43 0.00 0.13 1.50 0.01 3.83 2.33 1.07 2.40 1.46
Escalation rate
p (0.514) (0.947) (0.721) (0.220) (0.908) (0.051) (0.127) (0.301) (0.122) (0.227) L-R χ12
1.07 0.39 2.81 0.02 2.05 0.69 0.28 0.33 0.11 1.48
Escalated
contest p (0.300) (0.535) (0.093) (0.892) (0.152) (0.405) (0.595) (0.568) (0.741) (0.223) L-R χ12
0.69 5.06 0.23 0.30 0.36 0.93 0.11 3.71 0.27 0.14
The probability of W or L individual winning against a naive opponent
Non-escalated
contest p (0.405) (0.025) (0.634) (0.584) (0.550) (0.334) (0.742) (0.054) (0.601) (0.708)
表 5 本研究結果所顯示出近期輸贏經驗對各打鬥行為的影響 The probability of
W or L individual winning against a naive opponent
－ : negative effect Escalation rate
Initiating attack Initiating display The probability of
W or L individual winning against a naive opponent
－ : negative effect Escalation rate
Initiating attack Initiating display
Loser effect
圖 1 Kryptolebias marmoratus 雌雄同體的型態，尾基部有眼點，身體呈現波浪狀紋路，根據不同品系，外觀及紋路 深淺略有差異。(圖片採自 http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/)
圖 2 做實驗時所使用的打鬥缸
G1=0.72
Probability of initiating display
0d 1d 2d 4d 7d
G1=1.29
Probability of initiating attack
0d 1d 2d 4d 7d
p=0.021 p=0.196 p=0.021 p=1.000 p=0.745
Probability of initiating escalation
0d 1d 2d 4d 7d (a) W ( against N)
p<0.0001 p=0.023 p=0.514 p=0.253 p=0.416
0
000
winning escalated contests
0d 1d 2d 4d 7d
0
winning non-escalated contest
0d 1d 2d 4d 7d