本研究透過指導語操弄注意力焦點，比較情境之間的差異。
本研究限制為：
1. 本研究在室內使用人工草皮執行推桿作業和真實果嶺會有所差異。
2. 本研究限定作業為推桿，與射擊、射箭及飛鏢等精準性運動不同屬於控 制主導的運動，研究結果可能無，研究結果可能無類推至射擊、射箭及 飛鏢等精準性運動。
3. 本研究設定作業難度在個人進洞率 40%-60%，故該結果解釋及推論受到此限制。
17
第肆章 結果
一、成績表現
1. 成績表現 (進洞數): 單因子變異數分析
單因子變異數分析: F (2, 46) = 0.554, p = .580，沒有差異
表一 成績表現 (進洞數)
平均數 標準差
無指導語 19.7273 5.2553
外在 19.3846 5.7233
內在 17.5556 2.4551
2. 成績表現 (絕對誤差): 單因子變異數分析
單因子變異數分析: F (2, 46) = 0.185, p = .832，沒有差異
表二 成績表現 (絕對誤差):
平均數 標準差
無指導語 16.5000 6.03158
外在 14.9917 6.51299
內在 15.7167 5.67496
3.成績表現 (變異誤差): 單因子變異數分析
單因子變異數分析: F (2, 46) = 3.019, p = .064，沒有差異
表三 成績表現 (變異誤差)
平均數 標準差
無指導語 21.0773 6.57779
外在 16.0791 4.10173
內在 16.5245 4.85275
18 二、Fm theta 波功率
單因子變異數分析:F (2, 46) = .744 , p = .49，沒有差異
表四 Fm theta 波功率
平均數 標準差
無指導語 2.3374 0.92729
外在 2.3246 0.72962
內在 1.8898 0.75219
三、操弄檢核 Friedman’s ANOVA
(一) 無指導語：χ2 (2, N=16) = 29.939, p < 0.001
(二) 外在注意力焦點：χ2 (2, N=16) = 29.059, p < 0.001 (三) 內在注意力焦點：χ2 (2, N=18) = 27.114, p < 0.001
表五 操弄檢核
無指導語 外在注意力焦點 內在注意力焦點
路線 3* 2 2
外在 2 3* 1
內在 1 1 3*
19
第伍章、討論
本研究探討的問題有二:分別為 (1)技能精熟者外在注意力焦點表現是否與內在注 意力焦點表現有差異 (2) 進洞時，技能精熟者動作準備期外在注意力焦點 Fm Theta 波 功率是否與內在注意力焦點情境有差異。
技能精熟者外在注意力焦點表現與內在注意力焦點表現沒有差異之可能解釋在於，
依據限制行動假說，外在注意力焦點表現應優於內在注意力焦點，另考量雙重作業的影 響實驗順序為先不給予指導語，也為了排除學習效應採取等距弧形的方式進行作業，結 果為三者沒有差異，我們推論很可能是作業難度所致。因為本實驗首先控制作業難度在 40%~60%，命中率接近 50%的狀態下是最為不穩定的狀態，該不穩定的狀態與先前的 實驗設計不同，且本實驗的進行過程中不停的變換位置，或許會對實驗參與者產生不同 的影響，因此在基本的狀態上就有別於過去研究。
各個情境中命中率依序為 48% (沒有指導語)、48% (外在注意力焦點) 及 42% (內在
注意力焦點)，另外操弄檢核上也顯示實驗參與者有跟隨實驗指導語進行推桿，表示本 實驗呈現良好的控制。很有可能是因為相同作業難度下又不停的變換位置讓差異的變化 太小不易覺察。
本研究也無法支持 Moran 與 Toner (2015) 的主張，內感受性回饋 (interoceptive feedback) 有助於動作修正，再度自動化，但本研究並沒有探討進洞與不進洞之間的關 係，因此無法進一步作出討論。此外，雖然研究結果沒有差異看似符合 Beilock 與 Gray (2007) 的主張，內在注意力焦點不一定帶來較差的表現。但是本研究並無法提出進一 步的證據解釋原因，是較為可惜的部分。
本研究對 Fm theta 波功率只分析進洞的試作，因為成功表現時是實驗參與者調整
20
成正確的內在參數，先排除不相關的因素。本研究結果與實驗推導的預測結果不同，也 無法從Moran 與 Toner (2015) 主張內在注意力焦點促進內感受性回饋的觀點做進一步 延伸。第一種可能是因為過去經驗所致，大量的訓練過後，技能精熟者的內在模組 (internal model) 神經歷程提升了功能穩定性 (Shadmehr & Holcomb, 1997) 較不易受到 干擾影響。另外一種可能的解釋是動作精熟者具備神經精熟性 (proficiency) 及神經適 應性 (neural adaptability) 可以在兩種不同注意力焦點間轉換為持最佳表現，不論是自 動 歷 程 還 是 控 制 歷 程 ， 這 兩 種 特 性 使 精 熟 者 去 彈 性 地 適 應 情 境 要 求 (Ullsperger, Danielmeier & Jocham, 2014)。
就作業難度作進一步解釋及建議的參考指標，建議可以參考 PGA 統計推桿與進洞 率關係來設定作業難度 (Yousefi & Swartz, 2013)，透過操弄作業難度產生高進洞率及低 進洞率情境，比較何種注意力焦點能帶來較佳表現，控制作業難度
的因素，進一步對限制行動假說及內感受性焦點主張作驗證。
而且，本研究發現技能精熟者在不給予指導語的狀況下，偏好聚焦注意力在球滾動 的路線上 (line-in)，未來研究或許可以考慮加入成為操弄情境之一
21
第陸章、結論
技能精熟者外在注意力焦點表現與內在注意力焦點表現沒有差異。此外進洞時，
技能精熟者動作準備期外在注意力焦點 Fm Theta 波功率與內在注意力焦點情境也沒有 差異。
注意力焦點的研究中技能水準及作業難度之間的關係都仍有待後續研究者進一步 探討，並使用該研究結果幫助運動指導及教練應用於課堂上或是競賽場上。
22
參考文獻
Arns, M., Kleinnijenhuis, M., Fallahpour, K., & Breteler, R. (2008). Golf performance enhancement and real-life neurofeedback training using personalized event-locked EEG profiles. Journal of Neurotherapy, 11(4), 11-18.
Babiloni, C., Del Percio, C., Iacoboni, M., Infarinato, F., Lizio, R., Marzano, N., ...
& Eusebi, F. (2008). Golf putt outcomes are predicted by sensorimotor cerebral EEG rhythms. The Journal of Physiology, 586(1), 131-139.
Baumeister, J., Reinecke, K., Liesen, H., & Weiss, M. (2007). Changes In Brain Activity Patterns During A Sensorimotor Task Due To Acl ‐ reconstruction. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 39(5), S330.
Baumeister, J., Reinecke, K., Liesen, H., & Weiss, M. (2008). Cortical activity of skilled performance in a complex sports related motor task. European
Journal of Applied Physiology, 104(4), 625.
Beilock, S. L., & Gray, R. (2007). Why do athletes choke under pressure?.
Bell, J. J., & Hardy, J. (2009). Effects of attentional focus on skilled performance in golf. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 21(2), 163-177.
Bortoli, L., Bertollo, M., Hanin, Y., & Robazza, C. (2012). Striving for excellence:
A multi-action plan intervention model for shooters. Psychology of Sport
and Exercise, 13(5), 693-701.
Broadie, M. (2012). Assessing golfer performance on the PGA TOUR. Interfaces, 42(2), 146-165.
23
Broyd, S. J., Demanuele, C., Debener, S., Helps, S. K., James, C. J., & Sonuga-Barke, E. J. (2009). Default-mode brain dysfunction in mental disorders: a systematic review. Neuroscience & biobehavioral reviews, 33(3), 279-296.
Cheng, M. Y., Hung, C. L., Huang, C. J., Chang, Y. K., Lo, L. C., Shen, C., &
Hung, T. M. (2015). Expert-novice differences in SMR activity during dart throwing. Biological Psychology, 110, 212-218.
Cheng, M. Y., Wang, K. P., Hung, C. L., Tu, Y. L., Huang, C. J., Koester, D., ... &
Hung, T. M. (2017). Higher power of sensorimotor rhythm is associated with better performance in skilled air-pistol shooters. Psychology of Sport and
Exercise, 32, 47-53.
Chiviacowsky, S., Wulf, G., & Wally, R. (2010). An external focus of attention enhances balance learning in older adults. Gait & posture, 32(4), 572-575.
Doppelmayr, M., Finkenzeller, T., & Sauseng, P. (2008). Frontal midline theta in the pre-shot phase of rifle shooting: differences between experts and novices. Neuropsychologia, 46(5), 1463-1467.
Esterman, M., Noonan, S. K., Rosenberg, M., & DeGutis, J. (2012). In the zone or zoning out? Tracking behavioral and neural fluctuations during sustained attention. Cerebral Cortex, 23(11), 2712-2723.
Eysenck, M. W., & Derakshan, N. (2011). New perspectives in attentional control theory. Personality and Individual Differences, 50(7), 955-960.
Fitts, P. M., & Posner, M. I. (1967). Human performance.
Ford, P., Hodges, N. J., Huys, R., & Williams, A. M. (2009). An evaluation of end-point trajectory planning during skilled kicking. Motor Control, 13(1), 1-24.
24
Greicius, M. D., Supekar, K., Menon, V., & Dougherty, R. F. (2009). Resting-state functional connectivity reflects structural connectivity in the default mode network. Cerebral cortex, 19(1), 72-78.
Hatfield, B. D., Landers, D. M., & Ray, W. J. (1984). Cognitive processes during self-paced motor performance: An electroencephalographic profile of skilled marksmen. Journal of Sport Psychology, 6(1), 42-59.
Kao, S. C., Huang, C. J., & Hung, T. M. (2013). Frontal midline theta is a specific indicator of optimal attentional engagement during skilled putting performance. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 35(5), 470-478.
Kearney, P. E. (2015). A distal focus of attention leads to superior performance on a golf putting task. International Journal of Sport and Exercise
Psychology, 13(4), 371-381.
Klimesch, W., Doppelmayr, M., Pachinger, T., & Ripper, B. (1997). Brain oscillations and human memory: EEG correlates in the upper alpha and theta band. Neuroscience letters, 238(1-2), 9-12.
Lohse, K. R., Sherwood, D. E., & Healy, A. F. (2010). How changing the focus of attention affects performance, kinematics, and electromyography in dart throwing. Human Movement Science, 29(4), 542-555.
Marchant, D. C., Clough, P. J., & Crawshaw, M. (2007). The effects of attentional focusing strategies on novice dart throwing performance and their task experiences. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 5(3), 291-303.
McKay, B. J., Wulf, G., Lewthwaite, R., & Nordin, A. (2011). The self: Your own worst enemy. A test of the selfinvoking trigger hypothesis (Master’s thesis).
Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database.(UMI No.
1494111).
25
Neumann, D. L., & Thomas, P. R. (2011). Cardiac and respiratory activity and golf putting performance under attentional focus instructions. Psychology of
Sport and Exercise, 12(4), 451-459.
Nideffer, R. M. (1976). Test of attentional and interpersonal style. Journal of
personality and Social Psychology, 34(3), 394.
Ptak, R., & Schnider, A. (2010). The dorsal attention network mediates orienting toward behaviorally relevant stimuli in spatial neglect. Journal of
neuroscience, 30(38), 12557-12565.
Sammer, G., Blecker, C., Gebhardt, H., Bischoff, M., Stark, R., Morgen, K., &
Vaitl, D. (2007). Relationship between regional hemodynamic activity and simultaneously recorded EEG ‐ theta associated with mental arithmetic ‐ induced workload. Human brain mapping, 28(8), 793-803.
Schorer, J., Jaitner, T., Wollny, R., Fath, F., & Baker, J. (2012). Influence of varying focus of attention conditions on dart throwing performance in experts and novices. Experimental brain research, 217(2), 287-297.
Slobounov, S. M., Fukada, K., Simon, R., Rearick, M., & Ray, W. (2000).
Neurophysiological and behavioral indices of time pressure effects on visuomotor task performance. Cognitive Brain Research, 9(3), 287-298.
Shadmehr, R., & Holcomb, H. H. (1997). Neural correlates of motor memory consolidation. Science, 277(5327), 821-825.
Smith, M. E., McEvoy, L. K., & Gevins, A. (1999). Neurophysiological indices of strategy development and skill acquisition. Cognitive Brain
Research, 7(3), 389-404.
Toner, J., Montero, B. G., & Moran, A. (2015). Considering the role of cognitive control in expert performance. Phenomenology and the Cognitive
Sciences, 14(4), 1127-1144.
26
Ullsperger, M., Danielmeier, C., & Jocham, G. (2014). Neurophysiology of performance monitoring and adaptive behavior. Physiological
reviews, 94(1), 35-79.
Utevsky, A. V., Smith, D. V., & Huettel, S. A. (2014). Precuneus is a functional core of the default-mode network. Journal of Neuroscience, 34(3), 932-940.
Vance, J., Wulf, G., Töllner, T., McNevin, N., & Mercer, J. (2004). EMG activity as a function of the performer's focus of attention. Journal of motor
behavior, 36(4), 450-459.
Williams, J. M., & Krane, V. (1992). Coping styles and self-reported measures of state anxiety and self-confidence. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 4(2), 134-143.
Wulf, G. (2016). An external focus of attention is a conditio sine qua non for athletes: a response to Carson, Collins, and Toner (2015). Journal of sports
sciences, 34(13), 1293-1295.
Wulf, G., & Lewthwaite, R. (2016). Optimizing performance through intrinsic motivation and attention for learning: The OPTIMAL theory of motor learning. Psychonomic bulletin & review, 23(5), 1382-1414.
Wulf, G., Chiviacowsky, S., Schiller, E., & Ávila, L. T. G. (2010). Frequent external focus feedback enhances motor learning. Frontiers in
Psychology, 1, 190.
Wulf, G., Höß, M., & Prinz, W. (1998). Instructions for motor learning:
Differential effects of internal versus external focus of attention. Journal of
motor behavior, 30(2), 169-179.
Wulf, G., Lauterbach, B., & Toole, T. (1999). The learning advantages of an external focus of attention in golf. Research quarterly for exercise and
sport, 70(2), 120-126.
27
Wulf, G., McNevin, N., & Shea, C. H. (2001). The automaticity of complex motor skill learning as a function of attentional focus. The Quarterly Journal of
Experimental Psychology: Section A, 54(4), 1143-1154.
Wulf, G., Shea, C., & Lewthwaite, R. (2010). Motor skill learning and performance: a review of influential factors. Medical education, 44(1), 75-84.
Yousefi, K., & Swartz, T. B. (2013). Advanced putting metrics in golf. Journal of
Quantitative Analysis in Sports, 9(3), 239-248.
Zachry, T., Wulf, G., Mercer, J., & Bezodis, N. (2005). Increased movement accuracy and reduced EMG activity as the result of adopting an external focus of attention. Brain Research Bulletin, 67(4), 304-309.
28 驗(secondary task)，
PE 表現不受影響，IN