一、在珍珠鱗金魚的養殖過程中添加玉米黃素與合成蝦紅素可以增加魚體體表 之呈色作用，但對其成長表現沒有影響。
二、類胡蘿蔔素的添加中，玉米黃素與合成蝦紅素皆可明顯增強體色，其中玉米 黃素主要使色差計所測得的 b 值有上升的趨勢，而合成蝦紅素則對 a 值的上 升比較有明顯的作用，而若停止供給類胡蘿蔔素的添加，會使體色出現褪色 的現象。
三、珍珠鱗金魚在水生動物代謝轉換類型中，確實是如紅鯉魚型(red carp type) 的代謝類型能夠將玉米黃素，或其中間產物轉換成蝦紅素。
四、合成蝦紅素影響珍珠鱗金魚體色的呈色效果較玉米黃素為佳，並以 15mg/kg diet 為最適添加量。
25
Amar, E.C., Kiron, V., Satoh, S., and Watanabe, T. (2004). Enhancement of innate immunity in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss Walbaum) associated with dietary intake of carotenoids from natural products. Fish & Shellfish Immunology 16, 527-537.
Ando, S., Takeyama, T., and Hatano, M. (1986). Deterioration of Chun Salmon Muscle during Spawning Migration .8. Transport Associated with Serum Vitellogenin of Carotenoid in Chum Salmon (Oncorhynchus-Keta). Agricultural and Biological Chemistry 50, 557-563.
Aoki, T., Takada, K., and Kunisaki, N. (1991). On the study of proximate composititon, minteral, fatty acid, free amino acid, muscle hardness, and color difference of six species of wild and culture fishes. 57 10, 1927-1934.
Berglund, A., Bisazza, A., and Pilastro, A. (1996). Armaments and ornaments: An evolutionary explanation of traits of dual utility. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 58, 385-399.
Bjørnland, T. (1997). UV-vis spectroscopy of carotenoids. In Phytoplankton Pigments in Ceanography (Paris UNESCO), pp. 578-594.
Blount, J.D., Houston, D.C., and Moller, A.P. (2000). Why egg yolk is yellow. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 15, 47-49.
Boonyaratpalin, M., Thongrod, S., Supamattaya, K., Britton, G., and Schlipalius, L.E. (2001).
Effects of beta-carotene source, Dunaliella salina, and astaxanthin on pigmentation, growth, survival and health of Penaeus monodon. Aquaculture Research 32, 182-190.
Booth, M.A., Warner-Smith, R.J., Allan, G.L., and Glencross, B.D. (2004). Effects of dietary astaxanthin source and light manipulation on the skin colour of Australian snapper Pagrus auratus (Bloch & Schneider, 1801). Aquaculture Research 35, 458-464.
Buttle, L., Crampton, V., and Williams, P. (2001). The effect of feed pigment type on flesh pigment deposition and colour in farmed Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L. Aquaculture Research 32, 103-111.
26
Chatzifotis, S., Pavlidis, M., Jimeno, C.D., Vardanis, G., Sterioti, A., and Divanach, P. (2005).
The effect of different carotenoid sources on skin coloration of cultured red porgy (Pagrus pagrus). Aquaculture Research 36, 1517-1525.
Cianci, M., Rizkallah, P.J., Olczak, A., Raftery, J., Chayen, N.E., Zagalsky, P.F., and Helliwell, J.R. (2002). The molecular basis of the coloration mechanism in lobster shell: beta-crustacyanin at 3.2-angstrom resolution. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 99, 9795-9800.
Clotfelter, E.D., Ardia, D.R., and McGraw, K.J. (2007). Red fish, blue fish: trade-offs between pigmentation and immunity in Betta splendens. Behavioral Ecology 18, 1139-1145.
Craik, J.C.A. (1985). Egg quality and egg pigment content in salmonid fishes. Aquaculture 47, 61-88.
Crozier, G.F. (1970). Tissue carotenoids in prespawning and spawning sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus-Nerka). Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada 27, 973-&.
Doolan, B.J., Allan, G.L., Booth, M.A., and Jones, P.L. (2008). Effect of carotenoids and background colour on the skin pigmentation of Australian snapper Pagrus auratus (Bloch & Schneider, 1801). Aquaculture Research 39, 1423-1433.
FishBase, 2004. Species profile Carassius auratus Goldfish. #1758
Fujii, R. (2000). The regulation of motile activity in fish chromatophores. Pigment Cell Research 13, 300-319.
Goodwin, T.W. (1986). Metabolism, nutrition, and function of carotenoids. Annual Review of Nutrition 6, 273-297.
Houde, A.E., and Torio, A.J. (1992). Effect of parasitic infection on male color pattern and female choice in guppies. Behavioral Ecology 3, 346-351.
Hu, C.J., Chen, S.M., Pan, C.H., and Huang, C.H. (2006). Effects of dietary vitamin A or beta-carotene concentrations on growth of juvenile hybrid tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus x O-aureus. Aquaculture 253, 602-607.
Jimenez-Martinez, L.D., Alvarez-Gonzalez, C.A., Contreras-Sanchez, W.M., Marquez-Couturier, G., Arias-Rodriguez, L., and Almeida-Madrigal, J.A. (2009). Evaluation of larval growth and survival in mexican mojarra, Cichlasoma urophthalmus, and bay snook, Petenia splendida, under different initial stocking densities. Journal of the World Aquaculture Society 40, 753-761.
Josefa Romero García, Carmen Tatiana H. Kalinowski, María Soledad L. Izquierdo, Lidia Esther R. Robaina. (2010). Marine and freshwater crab meals in diets for red porgy
27
(Pagrus pagrus): effect on growth, fish composition and skin colour. pages 1759–
1769.
Kalinowski, C.T., Izquierdo, M.S., Schuchardt, D., and Robaina, L.E. (2007). Dietary supplementation time with shrimp shell meal on red porgy (Pagrus pagrus) skin colour and carotenoid concentration. Aquaculture 272, 451-457.
Kalinowski, C.T., Robaina, L.E., Fernandez-Palacios, H., Schuchardt, D., and Izquierdo, M.S.
(2005). Effect of different carotenoid sources and their dietary levels on red porgy (Pagrus pagrus) growth and skin colour. Aquaculture 244, 223-231.
Karino, K., and Haijima, Y. (2004). Algal-diet enhances sexual ornament, growth and reproduction in the guppy. Behaviour 141, 585-601.
Kodricbrown, A. (1989). Dietary carotenoids and male mating success in the guppy - an environmental component to female choice. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 25, 393-401.
Kolluru, G.R., Grether, G.F., South, S.H., Dunlop, E., Cardinali, A., Liu, L., and Carapiet, A.
(2006). The effects of carotenoid and food availability on resistance to a naturally occurring parasite (Gyrodactylus turnbulli) in guppies (Poecilia reticulata). Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 89, 301-309.
Kop, A., and Durmaz, Y. (2008). The effect of synthetic and natural pigments on the colour of the cichlids (Cichlasoma severum sp., Heckel 1840). Aquaculture International 16, 117-122.
Liao, W.L., Nureborhan, S.A., Okada, S., Matsui, T., and Yamaguchi, K. (1993).
Pigmentation of cultured black tiger prawn by feeding with a spirulina-supplemented diet. Nippon Suisan Gakkaishi 59, 165-169.
Martinezpalacios, C.A., and Ross, L.G. (1988). The feeding ecology of the central American cichlid Cichlasoma-Urophthalmus (Gunther). Journal of Fish Biology 33, 665-670.
McBride, S.C., Price, R.J., Tom, P.D., Lawrence, J.M., and Lawrence, A.L. (2004).
Comparison of gonad quality factors: color, hardness and resilience, of Strongylocentrotus franciscanus between sea urchins fed prepared feed or algal diets and sea urchins harvested from the Northern California fishery. Aquaculture 233, 405-422.
McDowall, R. M. 2000. The reed field guide to New Zealand freshwater fishes. Auckland, Reed.Reed Books, Auckland. 224 p.
Miki, W. (1991). Biological functions and activities of animal carotenoids Pure Applied Chemistry 63, 141-14.
28
Morgan, D. L., Gill, H. S., Maddern, M. G., Beatty, S. J. 2004. Distribution and impacts of introduced freshwater fishes in Western Australia. New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research 38: 511-523.6.
Olsen, R.E., and Baker, R.T.M. (2006). Lutein does not influence flesh astaxanthin pigmentation in the Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.). Aquaculture 258, 558-564.
Pérez-Vega, M.H., Uribe-Aranzabal, M.C., García-Lorenzana, M., Romero-Ramírez, M.C., and Arredondo-Figueroa, J.L. (2006). Description of the ovarian follicle growth of the neotropical cichlids Petenia splendida and Parachromis managuensis (Perciformes:
Cichlidae). Journal of Applied Ichthyology 22, 515-520.
Paibulkichakul, C., Piyatiratitivorakul, S., Sorgeloos, P., and Menasveta, P. (2008). Improved maturation of pond-reared, black tiger shrimp (Penaeus monodon) using fish oil and astaxanthin feed supplements. Aquaculture 282, 83-89.
Pan, C.H., and Chien, Y.H. (2009). Effects of dietary supplementation of alga Haematococcus pluvialis (Flotow), synthetic astaxanthin and beta-carotene on survival, growth, and pigment distribution of red devil, Cichlasoma citrinellum (Gunther). Aquaculture Research 40, 871-879.
Pan, C.H., Chien, Y.H., and Wang, Y.J. (2011). Antioxidant defence to ammonia stress of characins (Hyphessobrycon eques Steindachner) fed diets supplemented with carotenoids. Aquaculture Nutrition 17, 258-266.
Parker, R.S. (1996). Carotenoids .4. Absorption, metabolism, and transport of carotenoids.
Faseb Journal 10, 542-551.
Price, A.C., Weadick, C.J., Shim, J., and Rodd, F.H. (2008). Pigments, patterns, and fish behavior. Zebrafish 5, 297-307.
Richardson, M. J., Whoriskey, F. G., Roy, L. H. 1995. Turbidity generation and biological impacts of an exotic fish, Carassius auratus, introduced into shallow seasonally anoxic ponds. Journal of Fish Biology 47(4): 576-585.
Shpigel, M., Schlosser, S.C., Ben-Amotz, A., Lawrence, A.L., and Lawrence, J.M. (2006).
Effects of dietary carotenoid on the gut and the gonad of the sea urchin Paracentrotus lividus. Aquaculture 261, 1269-1280.
Storebakkena, T., Sørensena, M., Bjerkengb, B., and Hiuc, S. (2004). Utilization of astaxanthin from red yeast, Xanthophyllomyces dendrorhous, in rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss: effects of enzymatic cell wall disruption and feed extrusion temperature. Aquaculture 236.
29
Suckling, C.C., Symonds, R.C., Kelly, M.S., and Young, A.J. (2011). The effect of artificial diets on gonad colour and biomass in the edible sea urchin Psammechinus miliaris.
Aquaculture 318, 335-342.
Sun Xiangjun, Yu Chang, Yuantu Ye, Zhihong Ma, Yongjun Liang, Tieliang Li, Na Jiang, Wei Xing, Lin Luo. (2012). The effect of dietary pigments on the coloration of Japanese ornamental carp (koi, Cyprinus carpio L.). Aquaculture 342-343, 62–68.
Surai, P.F., and Speake, B.K. (1998). Distribution of carotenoids from the yolk to the tissues of the chick embryo. Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry 9, 645-651.
Svensson, P.A., and Wong, B.B.M. (2011). Carotenoid-based signals in behavioural ecology:
a review. Behaviour 148, 131-189.
Tejera, N., Cejas, J.R., Rodriguez, C., Bjerkeng, B., Jerez, S., Bolanos, A., and Lorenzo, A.
(2007). Pigmentation, carotenoids, lipid peroxides and lipid composition of skin of red porgy (Pagrus pagrus) fed diets supplemented with different astaxanthin sources.
Aquaculture 270, 218-230.
Treviño, L., Alvarez-González, C.A., Perales-García, N., Arévalo-Galán, L., Uscanga-Martínez, A., Márquez-Couturier, G., Fernández, I., and Gisbert, E. (2011).
A histological study of the organogenesis of the digestive system in bay snook Petenia splendida Günther, 1862 from hatching to the juvenile stage. Journal of Applied Ichthyology 27, 73-82.
Uscanga-Martinez, A., Perales-Garcia, N., Alvarez-Gonzalez, C.A., Moyano, F.J., Tovar-Ramirez, D., Gisbert, G.E., Marquez-Couturier, G., Contreras-Sanchez, W.M., Arias-Rodriguez, L., and Indy, J.R. (2011). Changes in digestive enzyme activity during initial ontogeny of bay snook Petenia splendida. Fish Physiol Biochem 37, 667-680.
Wang, Y.J., Chien, Y.H., and Pan, C.H. (2006). Effects of dietary supplementation of carotenoids on survival, growth, pigmentation, and antioxidant capacity of characins, Hyphessobrycon callistus. Aquaculture 261, 641-648.
Xu, X. (2006). Effect of astaxanthin from Xanthophyllomyces dendrorhous on pigmentaion of goldfish, Carassius auratus. Journal of the world aquaculture society 37, 282-288.
Yanar, M., Ercen, Z., Hunt, A.O., and Buyukcapar, H.M. (2008). The use of alfalfa, medicago sativa as a natural carotenoid source in diets of goldfish, Carassius auratus.
Aquaculture 284, 196-200.
Yasir, I., and Qin, J.G. (2010). Effect of dietary carotenoids on skin color and pigments of false clownfish, Amphiprion ocellaris, cuvier. Journal of the World Aquaculture Society 41, 308-318.
30
Zagalsky, P.F., Ceccaldi, H.J., and Daumas, R. (1970). Comparative studies on some decapod crustacean carotenoproteins. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology 34, 579-&.
31
Table 1 Composition and proximate analysis of the experiments diets
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
control L-5 L-10 L-15 L-20 S-5 s-10 s-15 s-20
Ingredients
choline chloride 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 Pigment addition(mg/kg)
Zeaxanthin 0 0.5 1 2 3
Synthesis Astaxanthin 0.065 0.13 0.195 0.26
Proximate analysis(%)
Crude protein 25.5 25.94 25.94 25.94 24.78 25.19 25.19 25.19 25.19 Crude lipid 11 10.3 10.3 10.3 10.3 9.5 9.5 9.5 9.5
Ash 11.54 11.32 10.58 11.76 10.43 10 10.61 11.54 11.54 Moisture 7.19 7.28 6.28 6.34 8.46 8.21 5.91 7.62 5.97 Carotenoids content(mg/kg) 0.262 0.263 0.263 0.526 1.056 1.842 2.101 2.105 2.368
Inclusion(g/100g diet)
32
Table 2 Growth performance of Petenia splendida fed with experimental diets
Average body weight(g)
Weight gain FCR
Exp.
Group Initial*1 5 weeks*2
7
weeks*3 5weeks 7werks 5weeks 7weeks 1 3.07±1.34 4.28±1.99 4.91±2.35 39.4% 54.2% 18.35% 18.09%
2 2.60±1.28 3.33±1.33 4.01±1.39 28.1% 48.3% 26.57% 19.78%
3 2.50±0.96 3.18±1.06 3.88±1.15 27.2% 49.4% 26.47% 19.56%
4 2.36±1.61 3.37±2.31 4.17±2.58 42.8% 66.5% 17.27% 14.17%
5 2.60±1.04 3.42±1.24 4.04±1.31 31.5% 49.7% 22.68% 19.38%
6 2.90±1.48 3.92±1.96 4.61±2.35 35.2% 52.9% 20.59% 18.42%
7 2.57±1.36 3.65±1.96 4.09±2.19 42.0% 53.9% 17.22% 18.48%
8 2.94±0.98 3.91±1.17 4.97±1.27 33.0% 60.3% 21.96% 15.74%
9 2.70±1.32 3.70±1.71 4.34±1.73 37.0% 54.3% 19.50% 17.51%
*1: Mean ± SD (n=8)
*2: Mean ± SD (n=8)
*3: Mean ± SD (n=8)
33
Table 3 L*a*b* integument color value of pearlscale goldfish fed with experimental diets
L* (lightness) Initial
Point
1 2 3 4
49.7±5.42 57.83±4.28 65.67±5.49 51.97±13.00 5week
34
Table 3 L*a*b* integument color value of pearlscale goldfish fed with experimental diets
35
Table 3 L*a*b* integument color value of pearlscale goldfish fed with experimental diets
36
Table 4 Comparisons of the integument color value of pearlscale goldfish fed with experimental diets with the control
Initial
37
Table 4 Comparisons of the integument color value of pearlscale goldfish fed with experimental diets with the control
Initial a
38
Table 4 Comparisons of the integument color value of c fed with experimental diets with the control
39
Table 5 Integument carotenoids content of pearlscale goldfish fed with experimental diets for 7 weeks
Integument Carotenoids Content(mg/100g)
Initial Ctrl 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0.021 0.021 0.042 0.053 0.063 0.065 0.095 0.063 0.105 0.253
40
Fig.1 External views of pearlscale goldfish fed with experimental diet for 7 week
41
Fig.2 The points of color measurement in pearlscale goldfish
42
Fig.3 The integument color L* value (lightness) of pearlscale goldfish fed on experimental diets in head (point 1)
0.00 10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
L*
Diet
Point1 L*
5 week 7 week43
Fig.4 The integument color L* value (lightness) of pearlscale goldfish fed on experimental diets in back (point 2)
0.00 10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
L*
Diet
Point2 L*
5 week 7 week44
Fig.5 The integument color L* value (lightness) of pearlscale goldfish fed on experimental diets in tail (point 3)
0.00 10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
L*
Diet
Point3 L*
5 week 7 week45
Fig.6 The integument color L* value (lightness) of pearlscale goldfish fed on experimental diets in abdomen (point 4)
0.00 10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
L*
Diet
Point4 L*
5 week 7 week46
Fig.7 The integument color a* value (redness) of pearlscale goldfish fed on experimental diets in head (point 1)
0.00 5.00 10.00 15.00 20.00 25.00 30.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
a*
Diet
Point1 a*
5 week 7 week47
Fig.8 The integument color a* value (redness) of pearlscale goldfish fed on experimental diets in back (point 2)
0.00 5.00 10.00 15.00 20.00 25.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
a*
Diet
Point2 a*
5 week7 week
48
Fig.9 The integument color a* value (redness) of pearlscale goldfish fed on experimental diets in tail (point 3)
0.00 5.00 10.00 15.00 20.00 25.00 30.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
a*
Diet
Point3 a*
5 week 7 week49
Fig.10 The integument color a* value (redness) of pearlscale goldfish fed on experimental diets in abdomen (point 4)
0.00 5.00 10.00 15.00 20.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
a*
Diet
Point4 a*
5 week 7 week50
Fig.11 The integument color b* value (yellowness) of pearlscale goldfish fed on experimental diets in head (point 1)
0.00 5.00 10.00 15.00 20.00 25.00 30.00 35.00 40.00 45.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
b*
Diet
Point1 b*
5 week 7 week51
Fig.12 The integument color b* value (yellowness) of pearlscale goldfish fed on experimental diets in back (point 2)
0.00 5.00 10.00 15.00 20.00 25.00 30.00 35.00 40.00 45.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
b*
Diet
Point2 b*
5 week 7 week52
Fig.13 The integument color b* value (yellowness) of pearlscale goldfish fed on experimental diets in tail (point 3)
0.00 5.00 10.00 15.00 20.00 25.00 30.00 35.00 40.00 45.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
b*
Diet
Point3 b*
5 week 7 week53
Fig.14 The integument color b* value (yellowness) of pearlscale goldfish fed on experimental diets in abdomen (point 4)
0.00 10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
b*
Diet
Point4 b*
5 week 7 week54
Fig.15 comparisons on the body coloration (△E) of pearlscale goldfish fed on experimental diets with the control
0.00 2.00 4.00 6.00 8.00 10.00 12.00 14.00 16.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
mean of △ E
comparisons on the body coloration(△E) L*
5 week 7 week
55
Fig.16 comparisons on the body coloration (△Ea) of pearlscale goldfish fed on experimental diets with the control
0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00 8.00 9.00 10.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
mean of △ E a
comparisons on the body coloration(△E) a*
5 week 7 week
56
Fig.17 comparisons on the body coloration (△Eb) of pearlscale goldfish fed on experimental diets with the control
0.00 2.00 4.00 6.00 8.00 10.00 12.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
mean of △ E b
comparisons on the body coloration(△E) b*
5 week 7 week
57
Fig.18 The integument carotenoids content of pearlscale goldfish fed with experimental diets for 7 weeks
0.000 0.050 0.100 0.150 0.200 0.250 0.300
Initial Ctrl 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Content (mg/100g skin