4.3.1 Sentence combination test
From Table 4.11 and 4.12, we can clearly observe the frequency of avoidance against each avoidance type. Table 4.13 presents the aggregative number of
avoidance by relative clause type and matrix position type. As the result shows (Table 4.11), the learners avoided most on OCOMP relatives and least on SU and GEN. The avoidance order in this test is OCOMP>IO>OPREP>DO>GEN/SU (>means were avoided more than). Evidently, this order matches the implicational universal as predicted by NPAH, except the order for GEN, and that between IO and OPREP. Generally, learners in the study tended to avoid on the more marked positions on the NPAH. As for the matrix position, learners tended to avoid on the subject matrix position, which echoes the prediction made by PDH.
Table 4.11
The frequency of avoidance in the subject matrix position on sentence combination by relative clause type and avoidance type
Subject matrix position Avoidance
type SU DO IO OPREP GEN OCOMP Total
Type1 9 9
Type 2 14 19 8 18 59
Type 3 0
Type 4 1 1 1 3
Type 5 9 7 5 6 10 11 48
nonuse 3 3
Total 9 22 25 14 11 41
Table 4.12
The frequency of avoidance in the object matrix position on sentence combination by relative clause type and avoidance type
Object matrix position Avoidance
type SU DO IO OPREP GEN OCOMP Total
Type1 11 11
Type 2 12 6 14 32
Type 3 0
Type 4 1 5 6
Nonuse 2 2 4
Total 2 0 13 11 0 27
Note: The learners did not use type 5 in object matrix position.
Table 4.13
Total number of avoidance on sentence combination test by relative clause type and matrix position type
Relative clause type Matrix NP
position SU DO IO OPREP GEN OCOMP Total
Subject 9 22 25 14 11 41 122
Object 2 0 13 11 0 27 53
Total 11 22 38 25 11 68 175
OCOMP GEN
OPREP IO
DO SU
Sum
80 70 60 50 40 30 20
10 0
Figure 4.7
The total number of avoidance by relative clause type on sentence combination test
4.3.2 Chinese-English translation test
In Table 4.14 and 4.15 is the frequency of avoidance specified for each
avoidance type. The total number of avoidance on translation test by relative clause type and matrix position type is presented in Table 4.16. And Figure 4.8 graphically shows the results. As with sentence combination test, the learners avoided most frequently in OCOMP relatives and least in SU and GEN relatives. The avoidance order is OCOMP> OPREP > IO >DO>GEN/SU, entirely identical to that in the sentence combination test. As predicted, this matches the universal hierarchy by NPAH, except GEN, and that between IO and OPREP. As for the matrix position, like the result in the sentence combination test, learners in Chinese-English translation test tended to avoid more on the subject matrix position than on object matrix position.
Table 4.14 The frequency of the avoidance in the subject matrix position on Chinese-English translation test by relative clause type and avoidance type
Subject matrix position
The frequency of the avoidance in the subject matrix position on sentence combination by relative clause type and avoidance type
Object matrix position
Note: The learners did not use type 5 in object matrix position.
Table 4.16 Total frequency of avoidance on translation test by relative clause type and matrix position type
Relative clause type
OCOMP GEN
OPREP IO
DO SU
Sum
140
120
100
80
60
40
20 0
Figure 4.8
The total number of avoidance by relative clause type on Chinese-English translation test
4.3.3 Summary
Table 4.18 presents the summary of the avoidance in the two tasks, in which the orders are alike except in the order for IO and OPREP. Table 4.17 is the
summarization of the avoidance in the two tasks, from which we can see the highest avoidance frequency occurs in type 2, which permits learners to avoid center
embedding in subject matrix positioning sentence, and to alternate to the less
demanding construction of DO relatives rather than IO or OPREP relatives in object matrix positioning sentence. The learner’s example sentences are provided in B and C below for illustration. And the fact is that the learners tended to use type 2 (as in example B below) more frequently in subject matrix sentence than in object matrix ones. In addition, the learners also frequently used type 1 strategy in the formation
of OCOMP relative clauses, which is the second most frequently used strategy (as example A shows). In addition, the learners made more avoidance in translation test than in sentence combination test (218 versus 175). The learners’ example sentences of avoidance are provided in Table 4.19. Note that the number in the bracket
following the example sentence shows the frequency of the sentence.
A. Use of type 1 to avoid OCOMP relative clauses I know the man.
Joseph is thinner than him.
Correct combination: I know the man who Joseph is thinner than.
Avoidance: I know the man who is fatter than Joseph.
B. Use of type 2 to avoid center embedding The woman is a nurse.
Bill passed a note to her.
Correct combination: The woman who Bill passed a note to is a nurse.
Avoidance: Bill passed a note to the woman who is a nurse.
C. Use of type 2 to alternate to the less marked relatives I know the woman.
Bill passed a note to her.
Correct combination: I know the woman who Bill passed a note to.
Avoidance: Bill passed a note to the woman who I know.
Table 4.17 The total number of avoidance by avoidance type Sentence combination test Translation test Avoidance
Table 4.18 Summary of the avoidance order in the two tasks
Test Avoidance order
(> means are avoided more than) Sentence combination test OCOMP>IO>OPREP>DO>GEN/SU Chinese-English translation test OCOMP>OPREP>IO>DO>GEN/SU
Table 4.19 Example of the learners’ avoidance
Avoidance type Example sentences of avoidance from the learners Type 1. The man who is taller than Cathy is Fritz. (9)
2. (A) I know the hotel.
(B) Hilton is cheaper than it. OOCOMP
I know the hotel which is more expensive than Hilton. (11)
3. (A) 那個學生來了。
(B) Bill 比他高。SOCOMP
The student who is shorter than Bill came. (31)
Type 2.
(B) My mother mentioned him. SO
My mother mentioned the author who is well known. (14)
2. (A) The woman is a nurse.
(B) Bill passed a note to her. SIO
Bill passed a note to the woman who is a nurse. (19)
3. (A) The candidate didn’t win the election.
(B) I voted for him. SOPREP
I voted for the candidate who didn’t win the election. (8)
4. (A) The candidate didn’t win the election.
(B) I voted for him. SOPREP
I voted for the candidate who didn’t win the election. (8)
5. (A) Mr. Smith looked at the girl.
(B) I gave a book to her. OIO
I gave a book to (her) the girl who Mr. Smith looked at. (12)
6. (A) I liked the woman.
(B) I danced with her last night. OOPREP I danced with the woman who I liked last night. (6)
7. (A) I know the hotel.
(B) Hilton is cheaper than it. OOCOMP
Hilton is cheaper than the hotel which I know. (14)
8. 我讀過的這一本書很有趣。SO I’ve read the book which is fun.. (13)
9. 我給他一本書的那一個人是我的同學。SIO I give the book to the man who is my classmate. (6)
10. 我昨天跟他談話的那一個男人很親切 SOPREP I talked to the man who is kind yesterday. (7)
Type 2.
Bill is taller than the student who is coming. (23)
13 (A) 我認識那個男人。
(B) Joseph 比他瘦。OOCOMP Joseph is thinner than the man I know. (24)
Type 4.
The author who is mentioned by my mother is well known. (1)
2. (A) The woman is a nurse.
(B) Bill passed a note to her. SIO
The woman who was passed a note by Bill is a nurse. (1)
4. (A) I liked the woman.
(B) I danced with her last night. OOPREP
I liked the woman that danced with me last night. (5)
5. 我昨天跟他談話的那一個男人很親切。SOPREP The man who has a conversation with me was very kindly. (1) 6. 我喜歡昨晚在宴會遇到的那一個女人。OO
I like the woman who met at the party last night. (5)
7.他認識教授寄了一封信給她的那一個女孩。OIO He knows the girl who got a letter from the professor. (5)
8. 我遇到了一個我曾經跟她一起上小學的女人。OOPREP I met a woman who had been gone to elementary school with me. (14)
Type 5.
Changing the head NP
1. (A) The woman spoke English.
(B) She was nice. SS
The woman spoke English who was nice. (9)
2. (A) The author is well known.
(B) My mother mentioned him. SO
The author is well known who my mother mentioned. (7)
3. (A) The woman is a nurse.
(B) Bill passed a note to her. SIO
The woman is a nurse who Bill passed a note to. (5)
4. (A) The candidate didn’t win the election.
(B) I voted for him. SOPREP
The candidate didn’t win the election who I voted for. (6)
5. (A) The man called the police.
(B) His wallet was stolen. SGEN
Than man called the police whose wallet was stolen. (10)
6. (A) The man was Fritz.
(B) Cathy was shorter than him. SCOMP
The man was Fritz who Cathy was shorter than. (6)
7. 那些住在高雄的人通常很友善。SS People are friendly who live in Kaohsiung. (2)
8. 我讀過的這一本書很有趣。SO The book is funny that I have read. (4)
9. 我給他一本書的那一個人是我的同學。SIO The man is my classmate that I gave a book to. (5)
10. 我昨天跟他談話的那一個男人很親切。SOPREP The man is kind who I talked to last night. (4)
11. 那個車子拋錨的人是我的老板。SGEN The man is my boss whose car… ... (3)
12. (A) 那個學生來了。
(B) Bill 比他高。SOCOMP
That student is coming which Bill is taller than. (4)
CHAPTER FIVE
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION