Chapter 3 Literature Review
3.2 Cathode Materials
Cathode materials were structures of oxides of transition metal which could undergone an oxidation into higher valence states when lithium is extracted from its structure. The oxidation happened in order to maintain the charge neutrality inside the structure, often this oxidation lead to phase transitions[25]. Based on the structure of these metal oxides compounds most likely there are:
• Layered structure such as LiCoO2;
• Spinel structure as shown in the LiMn2O4 structure; and
• Olivine structure in LiMPO4.
On which each of them represents 2D, 3D and 1D of lithium diffusion possible pathways.
3.2.1 Layered MetalOxide structure
Figure 3‐3 Structure of a‐NaFeO2 (R3m)
LiCoO2 adopts the α‐NaFeO2 structure with CoO2 layer and lithium layer alternating each others. Both the Co and Li ion inside the structures is having octahedral coordination. Compared to others, this layered structure of LiCoO2 was the most successful cathode material. Provided with most accessible lithium ion diffusion pathways, this kind of materials facing problems since the cobalt is less available compared to the other transition metal available[26]. Furthermore, it’s less stable since it can undergo such degradation while overcharged happened.
Cobalt also had possibility to be dissolved in the electrolyte and layer of CoO2 could be formed during charging‐discharging cycle led to lower capacity.
LiNiO2, having the same layered structure as the previous LiCoO2, provide materials with lower cost and higher energy density compared to the previously explained LiCoO2. On the other hand, this materials is less stable and having less degree of ordering, led to the occupancy in lithium sites with the nickel ions[25].
Presence of Ni2+ in the lithium sites could reduce the spacing between transition
metal resulting in Li‐ion diffusion blockage furthermore turns into irreversible capacity.
Mixed transition metal adoption were also attractive in this type of structure, recent development on LiNi1/3Mn1/3Co1/3O2 show that this type was highly stable and low capacity fading[27, 28]. Higher discharge capacity of this material could be obtained by increasing the cut‐off voltage, however this phenomena was accompanied by increase of coulombic ineffiencies as a result of dissolution of Co in higher voltage[28].
3.2.2 Spinel structures
Figure 3‐4 Two quadrant of cubic spinel structure[29]
Other promising cathode material is LiMn2O4, having spinel type structure with 3‐dimensional of lithium‐ion diffusion pathways. In structure of spinel (shown in Figure 3‐4), there’re two possibilities of where lithium ion could be adopted. In LiTi2S4 the lithium would inserted in the unoccupied octahedral sites
lithium ion (in B rich stoichiometric) and insertion on octahedral sites in lithium rich stoichiometric[29].
Comparing to the previous type of electrode this one is safer and lower in cost although it having lower theoretical capacity (140mAh/g in stoichiometric LiMn2O4). It’s said that the charge‐discharge capacities and the cycling characteristics of this type of electrode affected by its stoichiometric[30].
The capacity fading in this spinel structure is one of the major concerns.
Since the lattice parameter could describe the distortion inside the structure due to minor changes in the transition metal states[31]. The capacity fading might due to the loss of oxygen during charging and due to the dissolution of manganese into the electrolyte. The one that dissolve in acidic electrolyte was divalent manganese, which can be reduced by maintaining the surface voltage above the formation potential of Li2Mn2O4. This dissolved Mn could transfer to the anode and reduce to their metal states, which reduce the potential capacity.
Another approach for application of the spinel was by addition of another transition metal. The most common transition metal dopant used was nickel, in stoichiometric LiMn1.5Ni0.5O4. Nickel doping proven to give better stability and better electrochemical performance in this spinel arrangement structure [32‐34].
This compound show higher voltage plateau (4.8 V) compared to the pristine spinel one (4.1 V), attributed to the join electrochemical between Ni2+ and Mn4+[33], since the qudrovalent of Mn is electrochemically inactive[34].
3.2.3 Olivine Structures
NASICON structure (shown in Figure 3‐5)was first build up to support the fast Na‐ion conduction, which later developed by substitution of polyanion for
oxygen resulting in open host framework. This structure constructed on two metal octahedral (MO6) bridged by three corner sharing tetrahedral structure (XO4). The potential of this structure (operating with Fe2+/Fe3+) can be tuning by introducing inductive effect coming from the counter‐cation on the polyanion group.
Figure 3‐5 NASICON structure of LixM
2(XO
4)
3[29]
The research in the field of polyanion based had been done by introducing (XO4)y‐ in which the X was S, P, Si, As, Mo, W. Among those PO43‐
and SO42‐
attract more attention since it could raise redox potential compared to the oxides and stabilize structure [26]. With the substitution of PO4 into NASICON structure, the structure would be suffering a minor distortion into open olivine structure with only 1‐dimensional Li‐ion diffusion (shown in 錯誤! 找不到參照來源。).
Interest in this kind of structure was emerging as the introduction of LiFePO4 as one of the most promising cathode material by Padhi et. Al[35].
Other than LiFePO4, LiMnPO4 is having similar olivine structure, together with the same theoretical capacity (170 mAh/g) [26].
High discharge capabilities and minor capacity fading over hundred of cycling had been reported on this LiMnPO4 structure[36]. Compared to the LiFePO4 this material could offer higher energy density, due to higher energy voltage plateau the manganese offered. It was 701Wh/kg overcome the 568Wh/kg of LiFePO4[37]. Although the theoretical capacity is about the same with LiFePO4 only few groups manage to achieve the over 120mAh/g, mainly because the crystallinity and particle size effects. Many attempts was done in order to maintain the particle size effects, thus in the synthesizing low‐
temperature operation is more preferable. However, such low‐temperature routes could lead to the Mn3+ disordering in the lithium sites, resulting the blocking of 1‐dimensional lithium diffusion pathways.