In this study, subjects participated in simulated long-haul driving experiments on a motion platform in an immersive VR-based environment, during which their brain waves (EEG) and driving behavior were recorded. Driving performance was measured by reaction time (RT) as defined in an event-related lane-departure paradigm. Following strict criteria for artifact rejection in behavioral and EEG data, independent component analysis (ICA) was used to decompose EEG signals into independent brain processes, and power spectra were computed from the activation time course of each independent component. Independent components with similar features, such as topographic maps, dipole sources, and alert baseline power spectra, were grouped into clusters across subjects.
The results show that the power spectra of independent brain processes in the bilateral occipital regions are optimal for monitoring subject’s vigilance states for two reasons: the bilateral occipital components are most prevalent across subjects, and the trends of EEG power spectral changes are most stable across different condi-tions. The tonic power in the alpha band initially rises with increasing RTs, but re-verses to the downward trend when RTs become even longer; however, theta band power increases monotonically with RTs, and the center of mass in the power spectra shifts to lower frequencies at longer RTs. The trends of power spectral changes in the motion sessions are similar to those in the motionless sessions, but the upward and downward trends in alpha band power are steeper in the motion sessions; furthermore, significant power increase occurs at shorter RTs in the mo-tion sessions than those in the momo-tionless sessions. Finally, the rising trends of theta band power are affected by neither kinesthetic stimuli in the motion sessions
This study not only shows results that are consistent with existing studies on drowsy driving, but also reports new findings in conditions that are close to real-life driving. These results may provide insights into the design of drowsiness detection system on the road.
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Appendix
A.1 Output Frequency Bins and Time Points of Time-Frequency Transform in the Computing of Tonic Power Spectra
TABLE A1:OUTPUT FREQUENCY BINS
Bins Frequency (Hz)
1~10 2.93 3.91 4.88 5.86 6.84 7.81 8.79 9.77 10.74 11.72 11~20 12.70 13.67 14.65 15.63 16.60 17.58 18.55 19.53 20.51 21.48 21~30 22.46 23.44 24.41 25.39 26.37 27.34 28.32 29.30 30.27 31.25 31~40 32.23 33.20 34.18 35.16 36.13 37.11 38.09 39.06 40.04 41.02
41~44 41.99 42.97 43.95 44.92
TABLE A2:OUTPUT TIME POINTS
Time Points Times (sec)
1~10 -.743 -.739 -.735 -.727 -.723 -.719 -.715 -.707 -.703 -.699
A.2 Clustered Scalp Maps, Alert Baseline Power, Dipole Locations, and Talairach Coordinates of Each Dipole in Each Cluster
A.2.1 The Motionless Datasets A.2.1.1 The Frontal Cluster
Figure A1: The ICA scalp map of each dataset in the frontal cluster (motionless datasets; 8 compo-nents; paired correlation coefficient: 0.84 ± 0.13). The left-top inset is the average scalp map of this cluster, and the others are the scalp map from each dataset in this cluster.
Figure A2: Tonic power spectra of alert trials (trials with shortest 10% RT in each dataset) in the frontal cluster (motionless datasets). The left-top inset is the average spectra of this cluster, and the others are the spectrum of each dataset. In each inset, the blue trace denotes the average spectra of this dataset, the red trace is the average spectrum of the indicated dataset, and the gray traces are the average spectra of the other dataset. The x-axis is frequency in Hz, and the y-axis is the power in dB.
average location of dipoles in this cluster (dashed line: projection lines to the coronal, horizontal, and sagittal planes), and the others are the location of each dipole in this cluster.
TABLE A3:TALAIRACH COORDINATES OF THE FRONTAL CLUSTER (MOTIONLESS D
ATA-SETS)
Talairach Coordinates Dataset Component
X Y Z
s01_061102 6 -11.63 27.29 38.95
s32_061031 10 4.45 15.79 50.67
s32_061031 12 13.02 74.21 29.23
s35_070322 11 -9.65 28.77 20.48
s36_061221 7 -1.68 70.22 14.38
s41_061225 3 -3.98 10.89 31.10
s42_070105 13 2.47 34.47 39.71
s44_070325 5 -3.38 7.49 22.84
Mean -1.30 33.64 30.92
Standard Deviation 7.93 25.55 11.85
A.2.1.2 The Central Cluster
Figure A4: The ICA scalp map of each dataset in the central cluster (motionless datasets; 9 com-ponents; paired correlation coefficient: 0.85 ± 0.15). Other conventions follow Figure A1.
Figure A5: Tonic power spectra of alert trials in the central cluster (motionless datasets). Other con-ventions follow Figure A2.
Figure A6: The locations of dipoles in the central cluster (motionless datasets). Other conventions follow Figure A3.
TABLE A4:TALAIRACH COORDINATES OF THE CENTRAL CLUSTER (MOTIONLESS D
ATA-SETS)
Talairach Coordinates Dataset Component
X Y Z
s01_061102 8 -3.34 -7.52 42.03
s05_061101 3 3.36 -11.72 2.55
s31_061103 10 1.19 -9.62 62.72
s35_070322 8 0.09 7.70 39.85
s36_061221 2 -3.75 -7.30 27.67
s40_070207 3 8.88 -1.82 43.17
s41_061225 9 -5.60 0.76 43.15
s43_070208 8 2.59 -9.02 43.47
s44_070325 7 -1.29 -22.52 45.94
Mean 0.24 -6.79 38.95
Standard Deviation 4.42 8.49 16.33
A.2.1.3 The Parietal Cluster
Figure A7: The ICA scalp map of each dataset in the parietal cluster (motionless datasets; 12 com-ponents; paired correlation coefficient: 0.92 ± 0.06). Other conventions follow Figure A1.
Figure A8: Tonic power spectra of alert trials in the parietal cluster (motionless datasets). Other con-ventions follow Figure A2.
Figure A9: The locations of dipoles in the parietal cluster (motionless datasets). Other conventions follow Figure A3.
TABLE A5:TALAIRACH COORDINATES OF THE PARIETAL CLUSTER (MOTIONLESS D
ATA-SETS)
Talairach Coordinates Dataset Component
X Y Z
s01_061102 7 -9.44 -31.70 24.91
s05_061101 6 9.09 -12.21 27.15
s05_061101 13 9.43 -36.89 44.22
s31_061103 8 -4.35 -37.14 22.28
s32_061031 6 -0.24 -66.16 -1.34
s35_070322 7 5.01 -14.77 12.92
s36_061221 9 4.10 -33.85 38.13
s40_070207 4 0.35 -34.57 10.17
s41_061225 4 -1.84 -43.16 41.15
s42_070105 5 -0.90 -23.94 13.96
s43_070208 5 -4.86 -54.16 25.70
s44_070325 6 -0.87 -55.75 23.71
Mean 0.46 -37.02 23.58
Standard Deviation 5.62 16.12 13.40
A.2.1.4 The Left Somatomotor Cluster
Figure A10: The ICA scalp map of each dataset in the left somatomotor cluster (motionless datasets;
9 components; paired correlation coefficient: 0.88 ± 0.11). Other conventions follow Figure A1.
Figure A11: Tonic power spectra of alert trials in the left somatomotor cluster (motionless datasets).
Other conventions follow Figure A2.
Figure A12: The locations of dipoles in the left somatomotor cluster (motionless datasets). Other conventions follow Figure A3.
TABLE A6:TALAIRACH COORDINATES OF THE LEFT SOMATOMOTOR CLUSTER (M
O-TIONLESS DATASETS)
Talairach Coordinates Dataset Component
X Y Z
s05_061101 10 -29.64 -36.15 32.70
s31_061103 9 -24.53 -39.12 55.70
s32_061031 8 -38.27 -19.53 40.49
s35_070322 13 -33.57 -34.54 34.53
s36_061221 8 -24.78 -16.61 17.69
s40_070207 8 -31.43 -26.20 34.85
s41_061225 10 -29.35 -35.10 32.85
s41_061225 21 -42.87 -3.45 50.33
s44_070325 10 -18.36 -57.47 14.07
Mean -30.31 -29.80 34.80
Standard Deviation 7.43 15.53 13.42
A.2.1.5 The Right Somatomotor Cluster
Figure A13: The ICA scalp map of each dataset in the right somatomotor cluster (motionless datasets;
7 components; paired correlation coefficient: 0.93 ± 0.08). Other conventions follow Figure A1.
Figure A14: Tonic power spectra of alert trials in the right somatomotor cluster (motionless datasets).
Other conventions follow Figure A2.
Figure A15: The locations of dipoles in the right somatomotor cluster (motionless datasets). Other conventions follow Figure A3.
TABLE A7:TALAIRACH COORDINATES OF THE RIGHT SOMATOMOTOR CLUSTER (M
O-TIONLESS DATASETS)
Talairach Coordinates Dataset Component
X Y Z
s01_061102 11 15.69 -40.54 28.77
s31_061103 12 33.29 -53.43 34.04
s32_061031 9 34.76 -28.04 41.79
s36_061221 12 33.84 -21.82 37.99
s40_070207 13 18.77 -64.97 45.23
s41_061225 8 30.22 -26.55 42.74
s43_070208 9 30.53 -31.40 28.95
Mean 28.16 -38.11 37.07
Standard Deviation 7.70 15.85 6.66
A.2.1.6 The Occipital Midline Cluster
Figure A16: The ICA scalp map of each dataset in the occipital midline cluster (motionless datasets;
6 components; paired correlation coefficient: 0.97 ± 0.03). Other conventions follow Figure A1.
Figure A17: Tonic power spectra of alert trials in the occipital midline cluster (motionless datasets).
Other conventions follow Figure A2.
Figure A18: The locations of dipoles in the occipital midline cluster (motionless datasets). Other conventions follow Figure A3.
TABLE A8:TALAIRACH COORDINATES OF THE OCCIPITAL MIDLINE CLUSTER (MOTIONLESS DATASETS)
Talairach Coordinates Dataset Component
X Y Z
s01_061102 5 -1.00 -63.76 -33.74
s32_061031 7 8.47 -74.06 1.25
s35_070322 9 0.15 -63.43 4.86
s36_061221 6 -0.75 -65.71 -23.98
s40_070207 7 -1.36 -96.73 5.34
s44_070325 8 6.07 -76.91 -14.87
Mean 1.93 -73.43 -10.19
Standard Deviation 4.23 12.72 16.52
A.2.1.7 The Bilateral Occipital Cluster
Figure A19: The ICA scalp map of each dataset in the bilateral occipital cluster (motionless datasets;
14 components; paired correlation coefficient: 0.78 ± 0.21). Other conventions follow Figure A1.
Figure A20: Tonic power spectra of alert trials in the bilateral occipital cluster (motionless datasets).
Other conventions follow Figure A2.
Figure A21: The locations of dipoles in the bilateral occipital cluster (motionless datasets). Other conventions follow Figure A3.
TABLE A9:TALAIRACH COORDINATES OF THE BILATERAL OCCIPITAL CLUSTER (M
O-TIONLESS DATASETS)
Talairach Coordinates (Left) Talairach Coordinates (Right) Dataset
Compo-nent X Y Z X Y Z
s01_061102 10 -47.34 -65.34 5.46 -- --
--s05_061101 4 -35.65 -67.11 -5.72 35.91 -67.71 -5.69
s05_061101 11 -29.55 -78.62 -5.93 -- --
--s31_061103 6 -40.09 -78.56 10.98 40.12 -79.23 11.01
s32_061031 3 -45.96 -53.13 8.53 46.43 -53.90 8.57
s32_061031 4 -44.84 -57.52 -10.92 -- --
--s35_070322 3 -33.81 -104.96 -8.04 33.42 -105.52 -8.01
s35_070322 12 -20.74 -94.65 -40.58 -- --
--s36_061221 4 -41.82 -64.36 -9.59 42.13 -65.06 -9.55
s40_070207 2 -28.70 -75.15 2.95 28.80 -75.62 2.97
s41_061225 6 -- -- -- 16.78 -50.94 -20.17
s41_061225 7 -18.29 -47.92 -27.97 -- --
--s42_070105 4 -28.46 -62.56 0.99 28.79 -63.03 1.01
s43_070208 6 -- -- -- 4.87 -35.08 -74.53
Mean -34.60 -70.82 -6.65 30.80 -66.23 -10.49
Standard Deviation 9.70 16.63 15.00 13.08 19.91 25.90 A.2.1.8 The Tangential Occipital Cluster
Figure A22: The ICA scalp map of each dataset in the tangential occipital cluster (motionless
data-sets; 7 components; paired correlation coefficient: 0.87 ± 0.13). Other conventions follow Figure A1.
Figure A23: Tonic power spectra of alert trials in the tangential occipital cluster (motionless datasets).
Other conventions follow Figure A2.
TIONLESS DATASETS)
Talairach Coordinates (Left) Talairach Coordinates (Right) Dataset
Compo-nent X Y Z X Y Z
s01_061102 14 -28.50 -81.91 -18.02 28.52 -82.38 -17.99 s31_061103 13 -32.07 -85.77 20.92 31.96 -86.30 20.95 s36_061221 16 -39.35 -99.34 -2.56 39.05 -99.99 -2.53 s40_070207 12 -17.11 -110.73 -10.77 16.62 -111.01 -10.75
s42_070105 7 -34.28 -68.30 8.45 34.49 -68.87 8.48
s43_070208 11 -34.10 -105.94 -8.65 33.69 -106.51 -8.62 s44_070325 25 -23.17 -109.60 -10.04 22.70 -109.99 -10.02
Mean -29.80 -94.51 -2.95 29.58 -95.01 -2.93
Standard Deviation 7.55 16.16 13.36 7.67 16.10 13.36 A.2.2 The Motion Datasets
A.2.2.1 The Frontal Cluster
Figure A25: The ICA scalp map of each dataset in the frontal cluster (motion datasets; 6 components;
paired correlation coefficient: 0.90 ± 0.12). Other conventions follow Figure A1.
Figure A26: Tonic power spectra of alert trials in the frontal cluster (motion datasets). Other conven-tions follow Figure A2.
Figure A27: The locations of dipoles in the frontal cluster (motion datasets). Other conventions follow Figure A3.
TABLE A11:TALAIRACH COORDINATES OF THE FRONTAL CLUSTER (MOTION DATASETS) Talairach Coordinates
Dataset Component
X Y Z
s05_061019 5 2.98 44.05 -11.69
s31_061020 3 13.27 47.49 -32.96
s35_070115 7 0.41 43.28 7.74
s36_061122 2 -1.16 26.86 18.83
s40_070131 7 2.29 17.33 47.75
s44_070209 5 -1.50 14.67 8.43
Mean 2.71 32.28 6.35
Standard Deviation 5.47 14.52 27.38
A.2.2.2 The Central Cluster
Figure A28: The ICA scalp map of each dataset in the central cluster (motion datasets; 5 components;
paired correlation coefficient: 0.93 ± 0.07). Other conventions follow Figure A1.
Figure A29: Tonic power spectra of alert trials in the central cluster (motion datasets). Other conven-tions follow Figure A2.
Figure A30: The locations of dipoles in the central cluster (motion datasets). Other conventions follow Figure A3.
TABLE A12:TALAIRACH COORDINATES OF THE CENTRAL CLUSTER (MOTION DATASETS) Talairach Coordinates
Dataset Component
X Y Z
s05_061019 6 0.59 -11.30 27.11
s31_061020 11 -3.02 4.88 60.35
s35_070115 9 -0.03 -5.28 46.55
s36_061122 3 2.63 -15.61 33.14
s44_070209 9 -0.56 -21.74 46.65
Mean -0.08 -9.81 42.76
Standard Deviation 2.04 10.18 13.01
A.2.2.3 The Parietal Cluster
Figure A31: The ICA scalp map of each dataset in the parietal cluster (motion datasets; 7 compo-nents; paired correlation coefficient: 0.88 ± 0.10). Other conventions follow Figure A1.
Figure A32: Tonic power spectra of alert trials in the parietal cluster (motion datasets). Other con-ventions follow Figure A2.
Figure A33: The locations of dipoles in the parietal cluster (motion datasets). Other conventions fol-low Figure A3.
TABLE A13:TALAIRACH COORDINATES OF THE PARIETAL CLUSTER (MOTION DATASETS) Talairach Coordinates
Dataset Component
X Y Z
s05_061019 12 5.65 -31.51 40.21
s31_061020 7 -2.32 -15.16 28.21
s35_070115 4 -7.64 -24.59 20.07
s36_061122 17 15.63 -51.02 80.97
s40_070131 4 -4.53 -39.05 30.31
s43_070202 10 -4.50 -13.92 45.61
s44_070209 4 -4.16 -62.21 16.98
Mean -0.27 -33.92 37.48
Standard Deviation 8.14 18.09 21.70
A.2.2.4 The Left Somatormotor Cluster
Figure A34: The ICA scalp map of each dataset in the left somatomotor cluster (motion datasets; 3 components; paired correlation coefficient: 0.91 ± 0.13). Other conventions follow Figure A1.
Figure A35: Tonic power spectra of alert trials in the left somatomotor cluster (motion datasets).
Other conventions follow Figure A2.
Figure A36: The locations of dipoles in the left somatomotor cluster (motion datasets). Other con-ventions follow Figure A3.
TABLE A14:TALAIRACH COORDINATES OF THE LEFT SOMATOMOTOR CLUSTER (MOTION DATASETS)
Talairach Coordinates Dataset Component
X Y Z
s05_061019 9 -22.08 -29.63 27.18
s31_061020 10 -36.26 -17.89 44.73
s36_061122 7 -22.78 -22.12 26.52
Mean -27.04 -23.21 32.81
Standard Deviation 7.99 5.94 10.33
A.2.2.5 The Right Somatomotor Cluster
Figure A37: The ICA scalp map of each dataset in the right somatomotor cluster (motion datasets; 5 components; paired correlation coefficient: 0.83 ± 0.17). Other conventions follow Figure A1.
Figure A38: Tonic power spectra of alert trials in the right somatomotor cluster (motion datasets).
Other conventions follow Figure A2.
Figure A39: The locations of dipoles in the right somatomotor cluster (motion datasets). Other con-ventions follow Figure A3.
TABLE A15:TALAIRACH COORDINATES OF THE RIGHT SOMATOMOTOR CLUSTER (MOTION DATASETS)
Talairach Coordinates Dataset Component
X Y Z
s05_061019 8 25.93 1.54 40.28
s05_061019 17 27.70 -37.31 41.39
s31_061020 9 51.27 -26.21 44.30
s36_061122 9 41.86 0.35 28.96
s43_070202 11 40.34 4.19 30.58
Mean 37.42 -11.49 37.10
Standard Deviation 10.57 18.97 6.88
A.2.2.6 The Occipital Midline Cluster
Figure A40: The ICA scalp map of each dataset in the occipital midline cluster (motion datasets; 3 components; paired correlation coefficient: 0.97 ± 0.03). Other conventions follow Figure A1.
Figure A41: Tonic power spectra of alert trials in the occipital midline cluster (motion datasets). Other conventions follow Figure A2.
Figure A42: The locations of dipoles in the occipital midline cluster (motion datasets). Other conven-tions follow Figure A3.
TABLE A16:TALAIRACH COORDINATES OF THE OCCIPITAL MIDLINE CLUSTER (MOTION DATASETS)
Talairach Coordinates Dataset Component
X Y Z
s05_061019 7 10.78 -44.05 -49.52
s35_070115 10 0.34 -80.06 -20.96
s36_061122 10 -5.78 -77.10 -7.33
Mean 1.78 -67.07 -25.94
Standard Deviation 8.37 19.99 21.53
A.2.2.7 The Bilateral Occipital Cluster
Figure A43: The ICA scalp map of each dataset in the bilateral occipital cluster (motion datasets; 8 components; paired correlation coefficient: 0.89 ± 0.12). Other conventions follow Figure A1.
Figure A44: Tonic power spectra of alert trials in the bilateral occipital cluster (motion datasets).
Other conventions follow Figure A2.
Figure A45: The locations of dipoles in the bilateral occipital cluster (motion datasets). Other con-ventions follow Figure A3.
TABLE A17:TALAIRACH COORDINATES OF THE BILATERAL OCCIPITAL CLUSTER (MOTION DATASETS)
Talairach Coordinates (Left) Talairach Coordinates (Right) Dataset
Compo-nent X Y Z X Y Z
s05_061019 4 -36.68 -68.94 0.58 36.90 -69.55 0.61
s05_061019 18 -50.78 -54.90 4.79 -- --
--s31_061020 6 -22.09 -75.74 3.96 22.18 -76.11 3.98
s35_070115 2 -21.27 -70.66 -9.28 21.48 -71.01 -9.26 s36_061122 4 -26.16 -81.05 -19.79 26.20 -81.48 -19.77 s40_070131 3 -20.83 -77.16 -2.31 20.91 -77.51 -2.30
s43_070202 4 -2.40 -29.54 -46.47 -- --
--s44_070209 8 -- -- -- 9.39 -75.86 -30.57
Mean -25.74 -65.43 -9.79 22.84 -75.26 -9.55
Standard Deviation 14.99 17.92 18.31 8.90 4.37 13.30 A.2.2.8 The Tangential Occipital Cluster
Figure A46: The ICA scalp map of each dataset in the tangential occipital cluster (motion datasets; 6 components; paired correlation coefficient: 0.86 ± 0.14). Other conventions follow Figure A1.
Figure A47: Tonic power spectra of alert trials in the tangential occipital cluster (motion datasets).
Other conventions follow Figure A2.
Figure A48: The locations of dipoles in the tangential occipital cluster (motion datasets). Other con-ventions follow Figure A3.
TABLE A18:TALAIRACH COORDINATES OF THE TANGENTIAL OCCIPITAL CLUSTER (MOTION DATASETS)
Talairach Coordinates (Left) Talairach Coordinates (Right) Dataset
Compo-nent X Y Z X Y Z
s05_061019 20 -5.93 -113.71 -14.99 5.41 -113.80 -14.99 s31_061020 15 -23.29 -109.79 -3.84 22.81 -110.17 -3.82 s35_070115 12 -15.61 -105.62 -27.45 15.25 -105.88 -27.44 s40_070131 10 -18.83 -106.50 30.00 18.35 -106.81 30.02 s43_070202 9 -17.48 -46.45 -33.04 18.15 -46.75 -33.03
s44_070209 13 -- -- -- 3.21 -110.29 -22.85
Mean -16.23 -96.41 -9.87 13.86 -98.95 -12.02
Standard Deviation 6.42 28.11 24.99 7.82 25.73 22.98