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“wrong-feeling” again. To his surprise, the Doctor feels good about his contentment and calmness (Only Human 132-33). People tend to choose those feelings that are comfortable instead of those disturbing ones although sometimes these disturbing feelings can trigger us to strive harder. People embrace the transhuman idea of improving the inconvenience while worrying the side effects and consequences of these modifications. Transhumanism is criticized for being too optimistic toward the combination of humans and technology. Cory Doctorow views techno-optimism as
“an ideology that embodies the pessimism and the optimism above: the concern that technology could be used to make the world worse, the hope that it can be steered to make the world better” (Doctorow). Nevertheless, the optimism toward the
technology-enhanced future keeps society looking forward. This optimism toward a better future is practiced by transhumanists who try their best to call for freedom of human bodies. As a result, they over-emphasize the good side of enhancing human bodies with new technologies. When discussing transhumanism, issues of morality are definitely involved. It is hard to avoid any judgment during the debates; however, this chapter is going to focus on the transformation of humans and its possible definitions.
In order to understand human nature, we might want to start with the definition of humans and then we can move on to transhumanism and its metamorphosis.
Definition of Human
In a recent study, scientists find that the Earth had changed drastically due to human activities in 1610 which marked the start point of the “Age of Man” called Anthropocene. “To pinpoint the start of this new phase, geologists are looking for a clear signal… that will be captured in rocks, sediments or ice” (Morelle). Scientists postulate that the arrival of the Europeans in the Americas earlier caused the changes.
It was the time when global exchange (people, agriculture and diseases) became rapid
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and the Earth started to transform (Morelle). Since then, human beings have
dominated the world and have occupied nearly everywhere. What makes us special enough to overpower other species and how do we define ourselves? Generally speaking, we can say that humans share, feel and create in a more sophisticated system. However, “it’s very hard to define what we think is special about humanity because it’s we, the humans, who are composing the definitions. Objectivity is impossible” (Gee 106). Creativity may be considered one of the qualities that makes us human because “we are cultural beings, capable of wondrous works” (Jones).
Homo sapiens and their close relatives have left drawing of animals on cave walls and invented writings. In Only Human, Quilley has a poster on a wall which shows
“drawings of a variety of animals – bears, wolves, mammoths” (Only Human 68). In order to maintain cultural legacy, humans put down their thoughts and store memories using language systems.
In Only Human, there are three forms of record—diary, journal, and data-record.
At the very beginning of the novel, seven-year-old Chantal describes her weekend with a specific date and an interesting event (Only Human 1-2). Then, the novel showcases Das, the Neanderthal, is asked by Captain Jack Harkness to keep a journal because writing can clear things up (Only Human 71-74). On the other hand, Jack Harkness observes Das and put it down as data-records so anthropologists can study them (Only Human 75-77). Das explains his recognition of writing: “What it means is that instead of keeping your thoughts in yourself, or letting them out by saying or singing them, you let them out of your head and put them into small markings” (Only
Human 71). When the Doctor explains the pros and cons of the disaster of A.D.
436,000, Quilley is busy writing them down with a pencil (Only Human 86). He is the only person from Osterberg who keeps “historical artefacts” as his collection.
Compared with other Osterbergers, Quilley is the one who is eager to live in the past
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because the historical records are very limited from his time (Only Human 84).
What makes this recording system special is its longevity. Through writing, we can preserve our minds and thoughts not only for the sharing of this generation, but also future generations. “Through language, we can share accounts of what’s going on, what might be going on, what cannot be going on, what we would like to be going on” (Dawes 279). It is intriguing that humans desire knowledge not only of his age, but also the past and the future. The Osterbergers travel to the past in order to learn more details about the ancestors (Only Human 81). The ability to desire, to acquire and to know everything seems human. “We are driven by an unrestricted desire to know; not only to know, but through intelligent inquiry and critical reflection, to know correctly; and not only to know well but to know completely” (Dawes 279). By keeping records, everyone contributes his or her own experience into our collective memories.
According to research, Homo sapiens dominate the world because they may be more adaptive than most species and they can preserve and gain access to knowledge using writings and languages. “Intelligence is all about the retrieval of information in such a way that its lessons can be generalized and applied to new situations” (Gee 145). Our close relative—Neanderthals—and Homo sapiens have a lot in common in regard to genetic origins10 and social activities. Studies have shown that
“Neanderthals’ appearance was similar to ours, though they were shorter and stockier with angled cheekbones, prominent brow ridges, and wide noses. Though sometimes thought of as dumb brutes, scientists have discovered that they used tools, buried their
10 Studies have shown that Neanderthals share a common ancestor with Homo sapiens. Although the ancestor is not specifically identified, one popular candidate is Homo Heidelbergensis who populated Africa and Eurasia during that time. A group of Homo Heidelbergensis migrated to Eurasia and became Neanderthals while another group migrated to Asia and became Denisovans. Homo Heidelbergensis who remained in Africa gradually evolved into Homo sapiens. “In the ranks of prehistoric humans, Neanderthals were our closest relatives” (Switek).
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dead and controlled fire, among other intelligent behaviors… and it is even theorized that they built boats and sailed on the Mediterranean” (Szalay). Nevertheless, some scientists have speculated that Neanderthals’ language ability and brain function may not be as complex as Homo sapiens. “Neanderthals used stone tools similar to and no more sophisticated than the ones used by early humans, including blades and scrapers made from stone flakes” (Szalay). Their ability of producing tools is similar to Homo sapiens although they tend to form smaller groups which result in less complicated social system. “Neanderthals were a lot less sociable than modern humans. They tended to live in smaller groups, had smaller home ranges, and were therefore less likely to come across other members of their own species” (Gee 144). In Only
Human, when Rose asks Reddy about Neanderthals, he comments that they are
strange and don’t talk much (Only Human 104). It is described in the story that the Homo sapiens are more active than the Neanderthals because readers can notice abundant activities from the human groups such as playing games, sorting fruits, carrying fishes and chatting (Only Human 130). Compared with the activities of Homo sapiens, those of Neanderthals are less skillful (Only Human 109). Although the postulations and descriptions above have not been confirmed by the scientists, sociability may become one of the key factors that distinguish a species. After observing the activities of socially-active animals, Henry Gee concludes and says:“Perhaps the earth was inherited not by creatures with larger brains, or the most intelligence, but with the busiest social calendar” (Gee 144).
Later in the Neanderthal group, there is an invasion from humans which shows different behaviors between Neanderthals and humans (Only Human 117-18). The Neanderthals treat Rose and Reddy with friendliness and peacefulness while the humans invade and act rudely toward outsiders. Rose later finds out that the humans are not as ferocious as she thinks. The atmosphere in the human tribe is rather relaxed
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and cheerful (Only Human 130). As described in the story, we can say that humans are more active than Neanderthals in social behaviors. They are more competitive and active when interacting with other groups such as exchanging goods with other tribes.
Rose realizes that human tribes use “trade partnerships” to form strong alliances (Only
Human 136). As a social animal, humans communicate with each other using
language system. Rose notices that the men in the human tribe chat “good
humouredly” to each other (Only Human 130). “By social grooming, social animals use different modes of languages to achieve the same outcome (to communicate).
Language is not specialized for human beings while writing may be a human thing.”
(Gee 146-156). Humans use writing and recording to reinforce their communication system. The ability to write makes human beings preserve many precious cultural legacies. With our knowledge derived from generations, human beings have created the most complicated social system and many great civilizations.
In conclusion, in order to achieve the position that we hold, it requires consistent contribution of sharing knowledge (languages and writings) under a social system which is strengthened by sentience. “A sentient being will be aware of itself as a character in the drama of its life, and thus aware of the consequences of its actions on others, and to some extent of the internal mental states of the other characters” (Gee 157). Such complexity performed in a social group can only be enacted by human beings. Homo sapiens not only can feel and create, but also can perceive the world by acquiring organized knowledge which comes from constant interactions with others.