再見人類：蓋瑞 • 羅伯茲《人類唯一》中的人類流動性 - 政大學術集成

全文

(1)國立政治大學英國語文學系碩士論文. 指導教授：羅狼仁先生 Advisor: Dr. Brian David Phillips. 再見人類：蓋瑞•羅伯茲《人類唯一》中的人類流動性 Re-visioning 治Human: 政 Human Fluidity in Gareth Roberts’ 大Only Human 立. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. 研究生：鍾錦樑撰 Name: Chin-liang Chung 中華民國 104 年 6 月 June 2015. v.

(2) 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v.

(3) Re-visioning Human: Human Fluidity in Gareth Roberts’ Only Human. 立. 治Thesis 政A Master 大 Presented to Department of English,. ‧ 國. 學. National Chengchi University. ‧. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts. by Chin-liang Chung June 2015.



(6) Acknowledgements. I would like to dedicate this thesis to my family for their continuous support during my academic pursuits. They are patient enough to let me explore my interests and wander in the field of literature. My sincere gratitude goes to my advisor Doctor Brian David Phillips.. 政治大. Without his guidance and patience, it was impossible for me to complete this thesis.. 立. He provides so many insightful and intriguing aspects regarding human existence and. ‧ 國. 學. encourages me to explore related materials for further studies. It is always enlightening to have the opportunity to learn more. As a huge fan of Doctor Who, I. ‧. am proud to share the excitement and the craziness with Doctor Phillips.. y. Nat. io. sit. I would like to thank my committee members, Professor Chiu-hua Su and. n. al. er. Professor Yih-dau Wu, for their useful suggestions regarding my word choice and. i n U. v. organization. I appreciate their kind support and encouragement after the defense.. Ch. engchi. Last but not least, I would like to thank the Department of English. I have learned so much from the courses and the teachers. Also, I am grateful to have peers and friends who are generous and helpful enough to share the life with. Without the help of the department, I could not finish this thesis with confidence.. iii.

(7) 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. iv. i n U. v.

(8) Table of Contents. Acknowledgements…………………………………………………………………...iii Chinese Abstract……………………………………………………………………..vii English Abstract……………………………………………………………………..ix Chapter 1. Introduction……………………………………………………………………1 Only Human and Doctor Who………………………………………………5. 政治大 Chapter Organization………………………………………...................11 立. Previous Critical Reviews of Doctor Who………………………………….7. 2. Infinity of Science Fiction: Limitation and Illumination of Possible. ‧ 國. 學. Futures………………………………….……………………………………....15. ‧. Development of Science Fiction…………………………………………..15. sit. y. Nat. Limitation of Science Fiction……………………………...........................21. io. er. 3. Transhuman Dilemma: Metamorphosis of Humanity………………………..25 Definition of Human………………………………………………………26. al. n. v i n Ch Transhumanism and its Dilemma………………………………………….30 engchi U Fluidity of Transhumanism………………………………………………..35 4. Time and Space: Narrative Structure and the Fluidity of Human Nature…....41 Narrative Structure………………………………………………...............42 Diverse Tribes……………………………………………………………..49 Segregation and Cultural Blending………………………………………..52 5. Evolution and Manipulation: Multi-directional Transformation and the Fluidity of Human Body………………………………………………………………..59 Genetic Engineering………………………………………………………61 Evolution and Survival Mechanism……………………………………….71. v.

(9) 6. Conclusion……………………………………………………………………81 Works Cited…………………………………………………………………………..87. 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. vi. i n U. v.

(10) 國立政治大學英國語文學系碩士班碩士論文提要. 論文名稱：再見人類：蓋瑞•羅伯茲《人類唯一》中的人類流動性指導教授：羅狼仁教授研究生：鍾錦樑論文提要內容：. 政治大. 立. ‧ 國. 學. 本論文以超人類主義來檢視人類發展，並提出人類本性在與環境互動下呈現流動狀態。科幻小說經常在處理人、科技以及世界之間的關係，然而近年科幻小說在. ‧. 情節設計上有時會過度偏重科技層面，蓋瑞•羅伯茲的《人類唯一》將焦點轉回. y. Nat. sit. 探索人類如何因應環境的改變。本論文也賦予超人類主義新的思考方向，讓理論. n. al. er. io. 不再只是強調人與機器的結合過程，而小說中所展現的流動人性將以「人類流動. i n U. v. 性」來指稱，這種流動性是肇因於人類彼此與這世界的互動結果。羅伯茲利用不. Ch. engchi. 時轉換敘事者的技巧，創造了一個多元且混雜的世界，人們看待世界的角度也互不相同。故事中的反派香朵為了超越人類極限，利用控制身體化學反應及基因工程來改良並創造出混雜的物種，而基因工程也因為欲望驅使干擾了天擇過程，可能阻礙物種面對環境不斷變化的適應性。然而，人類本身擁有一種求生機制可以因應環境改變而調整社會行為，透過「人類流動性」的檢視，超人類過程不再侷限於人與科技的結合，而是人與環境不斷互動的過程。. 關鍵字：《神秘博士》，《人類唯一》，超人類主義，後人類主義，人類流動性，適應性，基因工程，人類演化. vii.

(11) 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. viii. i n U. v.

(12) Abstract This thesis seeks to explore human development through transhumanism and examine human nature as a fluid idea which results from constant interactions with the environments. Science fiction is often about the relationship between humans, technology and the world; however, the stories sometimes over-emphasize the technological aspects. Gareth Roberts’ Only Human draws the attention back to the. 政治大 provides a different perspective 立 toward the idea of transhumanism which originally exploration on how humans respond to these environmental changes. This thesis. ‧ 國. 學. emphasizes the merging process between humans and machines. The flowing concept of human nature in the novel is described as “human fluidity” which results from the. ‧. interactions and the relationships with the others and the world. Through the. sit. y. Nat. technique of shifting narrations, Roberts creates a diverse and hybrid world where. n. al. er. io. everyone perceives the world differently. In order to surpass human limitations, the. i n U. v. antagonist Chantal creates modified and hybrid beings by manipulating chemical. Ch. engchi. reactions and genes. Genetic engineering disturbs the process of natural selection by purposely selecting desired traits which may impede the adaptability toward changing environments. Nevertheless, humans have a survival mechanism which can help them to adapt to changes by altering their social behaviors. Through the examination of human fluidity, transhuman process is more than the combination between humans and technology; it is a continuing interaction between humans and the environment.. Keywords: Doctor Who, Only Human, transhumanism, posthumanism, human fluidity, adaptability, genetic engineering, human evolution. ix.

(13) 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. x. i n U. v.

(14) Chapter One Introduction This thesis will explore the latest condition of human development in science fiction through transhumanism. Moreover, it will focus on how transhuman ideas are arranged and presented in Only Human written by Gareth Roberts. Debates on human limitations were brought to the forefront once again during the 2012 London. 政治大 the competition’s fairness. 立Viewing medical science as the savior of those with. Olympics when the length of prosthetic legs caused controversial discussions about. ‧ 國. 學. terminal diseases, an Italian surgeon—Sergio Canavero is boosting a project of full head/body transplant1 and he believes that this operation can become a reality in. ‧. 2017. Although he admits that the ethics are the most problematic issue to deal with,. sit. y. Nat. he still wants to push this project further by gathering more neuroscientists on board. n. al. er. io. (Thomson). With the advancement of medical care and technological assistance, the. i n U. v. way we perceive humanity is changing drastically. The question of what makes us. Ch. engchi. human has become a controversial issue because technology bears infinite hopes and desires that might lead to unknown consequences. Science fiction plays an important role in presenting possible worlds and futures resulting from human activities. The development of science fiction has gone through many stages since it emerged around 19th century. Science fiction in the twenty-first century often pushes too hard on technological spectacles and the most advanced achievement that it may overlook how humans value themselves and survive during these changes. In an interview, Paul. 1. Canavero first proposed the idea of full body transplant in 2013 and he is ready to present the project at the annual conference of the American Academy of Neurological and Orthopaedic Surgeons (AANOS) in June 2015.. 1.

(15) Cornell and Louis Savy say that science fiction is all about us being human, not about technology (Cornell & Savy). Some science fiction stories may lose focus by emphasizing too much on the technological achievement. Facing an unknown future, human beings seem to embrace technology instead of disposing of it. The interacting process between humans and technology tends to last longer than transhumanists’ prospect because of the endless desires to become better. Being optimistic toward the future, transhumanists propose a world where people can embrace the help of technology and benefit from it. “Transhumanists, who. 政治大 working at the forefront of technological 立 development, believe that we can and should include computer scientists, neuroscientists, nanotechnologists and researchers. ‧ 國. 學. try to overcome all our biological limitations by means of reason science and technology” (Daly 18). Through constant self-realizations and modifications, humans. ‧. become transhuman. Transhuman process is “an evolutionary transition from being. sit. y. Nat. biologically human toward a more functional merger with technology” (Vita-More. n. al. er. io. 35). Often discussed with transhumanism, posthumanism emphasizes a future where. i n U. v. humans are fully integrated with and dependent on machines. Eventually, a person. Ch. engchi. becomes a “Cyborg” (cybernetic organism) whose biological functions extend and prolong through the combination of technology (Clynes & Kline). “We have already started a transition, a transhuman stage, which we should consider a transition to a posthuman stage, where humans will transcend their inherited body, with all its physical, social, emotional, and cognitive limitations, and convert it to an enhanced body” (Morales 34). This thesis regards transhuman idea as an ongoing process which shows the interaction and the partnership between humans and the environments. Through examining Only Human, the emphasis is on the interacting process which shapes humans constantly rather than the technological advancements.. 2.

(16) Only Human draws our attention back to human existence and it explores human nature through the interactions between people from different times. The novel gathers people from the past, the present and the future together in order to show how humans acquire information and how they respond to these changes. Only Human was published in 2005 as a spin-off novel from the ninth Doctor era of Doctor Who. Doctor Who is BBC’s long-running science fiction series which tells the story of a Time Lord, known as the Doctor, who travels through time and space with his time and space machine—TARDIS (Time and Relative Dimension in Space). He is an. 政治大 adventures. In the story, the Doctor takes Rose back in time to trace an unusual 立 alien from Gallifrey who takes his human companions (most of the time) on. disturbance of time travel technology. Their appearance, with future people of. ‧ 國. 學. Osterberg, makes the specific moment at that time a melting pot where humans from. ‧. different times can have the chance to communicate. Apart from these “outsiders,” the. sit. y. Nat. earth is occupied by Neanderthals and Homo sapiens in past Bromley. They all. io. er. experience the differences which drive them to revalue the possibilities of human nature. It is the inseparable bond between humans and the world that makes them. al. n. v i n C han abundant worldUwhere everyone shares different “human.” Only Human presents engchi. understandings toward human values. Human values may include the way we. perceive ourselves, the way we interact with the society and the morality we hold. When commenting on the theme of Doctor Who, Ken Chen emphasizes that it is the ordinary moments that makes it special (Chen 59). In Only Human, there are many trivial moments that seem usual, nevertheless, these ordinary interactions can result in exchanging new information from others. For example, Rose purposely goes to a nail salon and asks the manicurist about the chaos in the night club. She learns that there is a “caveman” around and he is sent to the hospital (Only Human 14-15). After learning that he cannot go back, Das—the Neanderthal who is accidently sent to modern. 3.

(17) Bromley—decides to learns new terms and how to talk to a girl in a club (Only Human 98). In order to blend in with the tribe of Homo sapiens in past Bromley, Rose teaches them how to manicure their nails (Only Human 131). Although some characters are aware of the differences and possible risks, they still strive to survive and live with it. According to Chen, the mundane view of the world is the ultimate value of Doctor Who (Chen 59). Only Human stands out by presenting three distinct groups and making them to participate in the process of human evolution. The storytelling is simple yet effective—to create a hybrid world where humans are forced. 政治大 valuable because they show how flexible humans can be. According to natural 立. to interact with each other. These characters’ responses toward the surroundings are. selection, humans learn from the environments and they evolve constantly toward. ‧ 國. 學. changes in order to adapt.. ‧. Through interactions, we can exchange information with others who might be. sit. y. Nat. extremely different. Quilley, one of the Osterbergers, is joined by the Doctor while. io. er. showing Rose his collection from the past. They start to share information about the status quo of Osterberg and how the Osterbergers become the master of. al. n. v i n CThe pharmacology. (Only Human 85-91). and difficulties arise when these h estruggles ngchi U. people try to learn new ideas from others (or not). Some people are changing. throughout the journey and striving for a world where everyone can live with their inherent differences. Although we may hold different perceptions, we still find ways to reach the balance between ourselves and the world. At the end of the story, people are still learning no matter which time period they are from. People from different times possess different responses to environments and these responses force them to question their values as human. The ambiguity toward the definition of what it is to be human opens up a channel for us to ponder upon. Through the eyes of the characters, Only Human presents a hybrid world where everyone is dealing with the most. 4.

(18) sophisticated human problems and conditions. Only Human and Doctor Who The author of Only Human, Gareth Roberts, had written Doctor Who adventure novels (from 1993) before actually writing for the rebooted TV-series (from 2005). He was also known for penning some episodes of Doctor Who’s spin-off TV-series—The Sarah Jane Adventures2 which targeted young adults and children. His long relationship with the show continued when he wrote a twelfth Doctor episode3 in 2014. Only Human was republished in 2013 as part of a 50th anniversary collection. 政治大 regenerate himself into立 a new form (body/face) when he is in danger of death. Every which contained eleven novels of eleven Doctors—one per Doctor. The Doctor can. ‧ 國. 學. new Doctor is played by a different actor.. Only Human begins when the Doctor, Rose and Captain Jack Harkness find an. ‧. unusual disturbance of a rip engine (a primitive time machine) in 2005, Bromley.. sit. y. Nat. They trace the signal back in time to where Homo sapiens and Neanderthals live.. n. al. er. io. Also, a group of people who come from the future are studying the history of humans.. i n U. v. One of the Neanderthals is accidently sent to modern Bromley and is forced to blend. Ch. engchi. into the society which is full of Homo sapiens. The future people of Osterberg find a way to control chemical reactions in the brain. They all wear badges which have buttons for them to type in specific number to reduce their “wrong-feelings.” Osterberg is controlled by Chantal Osterberg who creates the badges. The Osterbergers are from A.D. 436,000 where a space battle damages many of their technologies. They change the focus of their science to biology and pharmacology after the disaster and they master brain and body. People of Osterberg are surrounded 2. It was aired from 2007 to 2011 as the side story of a Doctor Who companion—Sarah Jane. Peter Capaldi plays the twelfth Doctor during the writing of this thesis and the first episode of Season Eight was aired on 23rd August, 2014. Roberts co-wrote the sixth episode—“The Caretaker” with the showrunner, producer and head writer—Steven Moffat.. 3. 5.

(19) by the whole timeline of human history. They initially observe Neanderthals secretly but the appearance of the Doctor disturbs their observation. The Osterbergers travel back in time to study the past. They want to restore all the details of human beings from the past so their future can be more complete. While the Doctor tries to stop Chantal from improving and breeding new humans, the others from varied times and tribes try to find a way to survive and blend in the new surroundings. In his introduction to Only Human, Roberts notes that the trigger for writing this novel about human feelings is that humans are easily troubled by feelings which are. 政治大 living with a surging response of emotions. However, these responses still exist when 立 descended from our ancestors. For example, our ancestors used to fight or kill for a. we are stimulated by our surroundings. The difference is, we cannot kill or fight as. ‧ 國. 學. our ancestors did because we live in a more disciplined world now. The feelings of. ‧. irritation and stimulation were useful when our ancestors were chased by animals but. y. Nat. they were not so “handy” when we no longer needed the reaction under new living. er. io. sit. mode (Only Human VII). Roberts’ personal experience drives him to create a villain—Chantal—who is planning to create upgraded humans called the Hy-Bractors.. al. n. v i n C narrations Only Human plays with multiple ambiguous conditions (identities, U h e n gand i h c. qualities and bodies) of the characters. Humanity no longer possesses fundamental. meaning and becomes flexible under Roberts’ arrangement. The transhuman process becomes multi-directional; that is, it can be viewed more than a merging process between humans and technology. It is an interacting process between humans and the surroundings which might change both sides. The advancement of technology or science is always regarded as the prominent priority for transhumanists. The future we envision seems to be linked with the most advanced technology. Most of us forget the flexibility and adaptability of being human when we face the constantly-changing world. Our interactions and perceptions of the past, the present and the future contain. 6.

(20) a process of change. Human beings can be easily affected and changed by daily information and interactions. The process can result in flowing human nature and human body. Various identities can result from different relationships, ethnicity, countries and groups. Human qualities include emotion, morality, perception, creativity and everything which belongs to humans. As for human bodies, this thesis seeks to examine different metamorphosis and combination of bodies regarding genetic engineering. These ideas will be further discussed in later chapters. The fluidity shown in the novel actually gives us a chance to contemplate our history as a. 政治大 There are no more essential meanings rooted in the values. The antagonist, Chantal, 立 whole and to realize the fact that human beings are changing with the environment.. wants to build a Utopia where humans can transcend themselves from pain, disease. ‧ 國. 學. and violence. In order to replace flawed humans (her perception), she creates the Hy-. ‧. Bractors who have more adapted minds when facing the rapid-changing world.. sit. y. Nat. Chantal’s modification of humans challenges the way we perceive ourselves.. io. er. However, her modifications fail because she cannot predict the process of natural selection which is dependent on adaptability. Only Human shows how Neanderthals,. al. n. v i n C h deal with the upcoming Homo sapiens, and future humans changes and share different engchi U understandings toward the world.. Previous Critical Reviews of Doctor Who Celebrating its 50th anniversary in 2013, Doctor Who has gained its fame not only by its emotionally compelling stories but also the exploration of different genre elements. Apart from science fiction, it consists of fantasy, thriller, mystery and detective fiction.4 Its themes evolve with different writers and producers. Josh Oren There are episodes that specifically pay attributes to some authors’ classic elements. For example, C. S. Lewis’ fantasy novel The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe is turned into a new story “The Doctor, the Widow and the Wardrobe” (2011). Agatha Christie’s detective and mystery-solving plot can be seen in “The Unicorn and the Wasp” (2008) and “Mummy on the Orient Express” (2014). The show also has. 4. 7.

(21) has commented on the hybridity of the show and says: “Doctor Who is more than just science fiction, and it’s more than just fantasy; it’s a huge tossed salad of storytelling genres” (Oren). Alec Charles concludes that head writer Steven Moffat’s writings present “unconscious perceptions, repressed fears and death itself through storytelling techniques” (Charles 1). Moffat often writes themes about childhood nightmares and fears5 which make both children and adults feel connected to the stories. Doctor Who presents a world where wonders and horrors are co-existed. While Moffat is dealing with childhood nightmares, he is also examining adults who are repressing their fears.. 政治大 therefore sees everything which adulthood seeks to repress), then his perspective is as 立. Charles says: “If Moffat’s Doctor Who sees the world through the eyes of a child (and. full of horrors as it is of wonders” (Charles 6).. ‧ 國. 學. With these diverse elements, Doctor Who explores more than how human beings. ‧. interact with technologies but also how they interact with the surroundings. In Doctor. sit. y. Nat. Who’s two eras,6 the show explores what it is to be human, how we deal with. io. er. emotions and how we interact with the world. Through exploration, human beings strive to conquer the difficulties and make life better. In the docudrama An Adventure. al. n. v i n in Space and Time which shows theC invention of Doctor Who, h e n g c h i U the head of the original series wants the show to attract sports fans as well as kids (Gatiss). This long-running. show has 10 different themes over the years according to Charlie Jane Anders’ categorization. She notes that Doctor Who gained its success by “changing its format drastically” (Anders). In an interview, Gareth Roberts says that it was difficult to write. creepy monsters that can frighten the audience such as the Weeping Angels in “Blink” (2007). These statue monsters only move when the victims blink their eyes. 5 A ghostly child who eagers to find his mother in “The Empty Child”/“The Doctor Dances” (2005); Young Madame de Pompadour and her clockwork droid monster under her bed in “The Girl in the Fireplace” (2006); Young Amelia Pond and her whispering crack on the wall in “The Eleventh Hour” (2010); Young Danny Pink who fears the unknown under his bed in “Listen” (2014). 6 Doctor Who has two periods in its production history—classic who and new who. The first period of the show premiered in 1963 and ended in 1989. It was rebooted in 2005 and is running until now. The new Doctor Who refers to the series after 2005.. 8.

(22) Doctor Who because children pay more attention to the plot while adults catch the jokes and its changing tone (Roberts 55). However, its path of taking both targets into account results in many debates on whether Doctor Who should choose side in its target audience. In her essay “Leave Doctor Who to the Kids,” Helen Lewis-Hasteley emphasizes that the show “concentrate[s] on the kid-friendly episodes but throw[s] in a dark storyline every so often to appease the adult fans” (Lewis-Hasteley 13). She does not urge the writers to change their approach. Instead, she urges grown-ups to choose those shows designed for adults. Nevertheless, Chen says that Doctor Who. 政治大 view is fearful and moral” (Chen 54). The show presents an abundant world where 立. presents “life as a dark, unceasing slog in which we are epic heroes… whose world. everyone can relate to. Its theme is universal and social rather than individual which. ‧ 國. 學. only applies on certain characters.. ‧. Many critics have noted that the show reflects different aspects of society.. y. Nat. Through their studies on psychoanalytic and sociological aspects of children’s. er. io. sit. literature, Margaret and Michael Rustin found that the show actually “reflects aspects of the society in which it is set, including the ways in which it takes advantage of the. al. n. v i n C htravel to encourageUits viewers to become aware of opportunities of time and space engchi other ‘possible worlds’” (Rustin 1). This exploration adds positive effects on the. development of children into adults. As previously mentioned, Chen makes his point by saying that the show is successful because of its ordinary moments. When examining television studies, Matt Hills has suggested that television studies should look at the “moments” instead of the whole text and structure (Hills 26). He notes that Doctor Who is all about moments which are coincided with fan’s participation and. 9.

(23) anticipation7 (Hills 29). Anders thinks Season Eight and the Moffat era8 gives “clever, quotable dialogue and keenly observed moments” (Anders). In addition, it often presents “unexpected moments of real emotion and profound sincerity” (Anders). Apart from presenting ordinary moments, Doctor Who is also related to transhuman issues since its theme revolves around humanity. In his article “Doctor Who and Transhumanism,” Richard Thomas says that Cybermen, which was first introduced in 1966, marked the first exploration of humans being replaced gradually. 政治大 in which people should not “think of humans as mere biological machines” (Thomas). 立 by technology and machines. Thus, he discusses the awareness of transhuman anxiety. He further states that human morality and emotion are the essential factors that. ‧ 國. 學. distinguish human beings from animals. We will come back to this discussion later. ‧. regarding human nature. The show presents many moments when the characters. y. Nat. struggle between ambiguous boundaries of morality and emotion. When creating. er. io. sit. Doctor Who’s first monster (the Daleks) in 1963, producer Verity Lambert explains the concept of these Big-eyed monsters: “They used to be like us… but radiation has. al. n. v i n C h metal shells andUnow they hate everything made them retreat into these impregnable engchi that isn't like them” (Gatiss). Compared with Cybermen, the Daleks are actually the. first example of the emergence between humans and machines. Unlike the robotic Cybermen who lose all humanity, the Daleks are living organisms who hide in the shells and can feel fear and hatred. In the television episode “Into the Dalek,” the Doctor encounters a “moral Dalek” whose brain is affected by radiation. It can see. 7. In his review on the 50th Anniversary Episode The Day of the Doctor (2013), Alfred Joyner said that it “could not have been a greater love letter to fans of Doctor Who on its 50th anniversary, an episode that triumphantly celebrated the show's past while providing an intriguing glimpse of its future” (Joyner). The shout-outs are especially to the loyal fans who want their favorite characters or elements to be seen again. 8 Steven Moffat became the showrunner, producer and lead writer of the series in 2010 starting with Season Five.. 10.

(24) beauty of the universe so it is willing to stop killing those who are different from it. However, the Dalek becomes “bad” again because the Doctor repairs it. To stop it from exterminating the spaceship which keeps it, the Doctor uses telepathy to communicate with it and he tries to make it remember the beauty which it experiences before. The Dalek tastes the hatred of the Doctor toward all the Daleks and it finally uses this hatred to destroy all the Daleks on board. The good or bad opposition is categorized by our moral standard. Nevertheless, the episode questions this binary opposition and makes it ambiguous for moral judgement. Before leaving, the Dalek. 政治大 Dalek. You are a good Dalek.” The twisted morality drives the viewers to reflect on 立 comments on the Doctor’s remark of seeing it as a good Dalek: “I am not a good. themselves. This uncertain similarities blur the definition of what it means to be. ‧ 國. 學. human. From the previous reviews, we can say that Doctor Who is deeply linked with. ‧. society and is profoundly influenced by human desires. And through its growing. sit. y. Nat. popularity, the show evolves into a new dimension where humans have to face their. io. er. deepest desires and revalue their definition of being a human. Thus, later chapters will deal with the definition of humans and why this thesis seeks to re-examine. n. al. Ch. transhumanism with the idea of fluidity.. engchi. i n U. v. Chapter Organization Before entering the discussion on approaches to transhumanism, we have to go into science fiction history and explore some traditions which are related to my discussion on transhumanism. The second chapter is “Infinity of Science Fiction: Limitation and Illumination of Possible Futures.” In this chapter, the focus will be on some landmarks of science fiction and their concepts on human condition. Through continuous explorations, science fiction has encountered many obstacles which result in never-ending competitions of technological spectacles. On the contrary, Doctor. 11.

(25) Who has a different take on the exploration which is primarily based on human nature. The third chapter is “Transhuman Dilemma: Metamorphosis of Humanity.” In this chapter, the definition of what it is to be human will first be discussed and it will show how the concepts change. Then, we will encounter the current conditions of transhumanism and the related theories. By exploring transhumanism, the emphasis will be on the insufficiency of the theory. This thesis seeks to provide the idea of human fluidity as a new way of examining the multi-directional transformation of human beings.. 政治大 Human Nature.” In this chapter, we will see how the narrative structures help to create 立 The fourth chapter is “Time and Space: Narrative Structure and the Fluidity of. the sense of hybridity and fluidity. Moreover, different tribes are scattered through. ‧ 國. 學. time and space which cause the effect of the flowing human nature and quality. It will. ‧. further explore the clashes between the tribes and how they interact with each other.. sit. y. Nat. And the feeling of being exclusive makes them struggle with the identities. Through. io. time and space.. er. the struggles, human qualities are shown differently and evolve rapidly regardless of. al. n. v i n The fifth chapter is “EvolutionC and Manipulation: Multi-directional hengchi U. Transformation and the Fluidity of Human Body.” In this chapter, we will continue to explore the idea of fluidity and see how the transformation works in the novel. The idea of human evolution has become boundless due to the master of brain and body. With or without technology, human beings can freely be reformed and modified into various shapes. The novel gives a broader view of this transhuman process which is influenced by traits from the past, the present and the possible future. In order to survive, humans possess the adaptability to evolve with the changing surroundings. Through examining Only Human, this thesis proposes that the transhuman process is not single-directional but boundless due to inseparable relationship with the. 12.

(26) environment. The discussion does not mean to justify the ethical problem of transhumanism, but to open up another perspective of human evolution through the idea of fluidity.. 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. 13. i n U. v.

(27) 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. 14. i n U. v.

(28) Chapter Two Infinity of Science Fiction: Limitation and Illumination of Possible Futures Science fiction is often about how humans use technology to map out the world and how the world responds to us. The advancement of science and technology is driven by human desires which drive humans to yearn for the better. As previously. 政治大 being human. In other words, science fiction writers use their speculated futures to 立 discussed, Paul Cornell and Louis Savy emphasize that science fiction is about us. examine the real world. Science fiction stories started to emerge in the 19th century. ‧ 國. 學. before science fiction was consider as a genre. The term science fiction was not being. ‧. created until Hugo Gernsback identified it in his first science fiction magazine. sit. y. Nat. (Amazing Stories) in 1926 (Gunn 27). Since then, the genre has spread out and has. io. er. changed drastically with human activities and technological achievements. In this chapter, we will examine how this genre develops and how it encounters difficulties in. n. al. recent years.. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. Development of Science Fiction In 1859, Darwin astounded society with his On the Origin of Species in which he discussed natural selection and human evolution. As a result, scientists and anthropologists strove to find more answers regarding human capabilities and evolutionary paths. Influenced by developing science, science fiction started to be recognized by the public due to the improvements of science and industrialization in the 19th century. “The immediate predecessors of science fiction got started when writers noticed the social change created by the Industrial Revolution and the habit of. 15.

(29) mind derived from Scientific Enlightenment” (Gunn 27-28). As the anticipation of technological development soars, science fiction writers explore and speculate possible futures and impacts on human beings. Science fiction often provides “alternative worlds” and “articulates our present-day concerns and anxieties” (Chown 46-49). Science fiction writers share the public’s curiosity toward the future and put their visions into the stories. These visions are imaginary prospects before they actually come true. In an interview, writer William Gibson says that science fiction writers cannot predict the future through their works. He says: “I think the least. 政治大 being accurately predictive is really, really poor… Science fiction writers aren’t 立. important thing about science fiction for me is its predictive capacity. Its record for. fortune tellers” (Gibson). When commenting on creativity, he says that “if you’re not. ‧ 國. 學. getting it wrong really a lot when you’re creating imaginary futures, then you’re just. ‧. not doing it enough” (Gibson). Through these alternative worlds, readers can place. sit. y. Nat. their hopes and anxieties in the futures while re-examining the reality. Some science. io. er. fictions carry certain hopes of the people when writers create their imaginary worlds. Ria Misra states that science fiction has “incredible inventions that became reality and. al. n. v i n C hbecome reality at some incredible inventions that we hope will point in the future” engchi U. (Misra). However, she lists out some inventions that may cause troubles when they. are actually produced and practiced in reality such as a transporter that can beam people from one place to another (Misra). The consequences of the appearance of advanced technology in science fiction are hard to predict, like science itself, it can be used for good/bad purpose or somewhere in between. That is why many science fiction ideas remain unrealized despite the fast development of technology. Although technology can have negative effects, it surely can bring hopes to those who have disadvantages. (It is common in medical use and mobile communication devices.) Human desires and needs are the. 16.

(30) factors which may drive us to transcend our limitations (mentally or bodily). By examining the history of science fiction, we can see how the genre evolves with technological development which reflects the flexible changes of human nature. When it comes to the history of science fiction, scholars mark various starting points of science fiction according to how the authors define science fiction. One possible starting point was marked by the “Industrial Revolution with Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein (1818)” (Seed 3). Mary Shelley was regarded as one of the distinguished writers of science fiction because of her bold experiment on resurrection. 政治大 clearly “biological technology” (Rehmann-Sutter 158). Shelley explores not only the 立 using electricity. Christoph Rehmann-Sutter notes that the topic of Frankenstein was. limitation and ambition of science, but also the perception and boundary between. ‧ 國. 學. monsters and humans. The creature’s “powers and stature are also super-human but in. ‧. his heart he is a very human being, with normal needs to communicate, to love and to. sit. y. Nat. be loved, to have a reliable social environment” (Rehmann-Sutter 167). Frankenstein. io. er. examines the fatal consequences of excessive desires toward using scientific knowledge. It also shows how these desires become abusive as the result of humanity. n. al. C hback on humans.U n i and how the monstrosity reflects engchi. v. Apart from dissecting human bodies (literally and symbolically), people started. to pay more attention on the planet we lived on. Being mostly categorized as science fantasy, Jules Verne’s Journey to the Center of the Earth, which was published in 1864, explored the unknown of this planet and was the first science fiction/fantasy that dealt with themes regarding the center of the Earth. Along with Shelley and Verne, H. G. Wells was one of the renowned writers who conceived the idea of time travel in science fiction history. In his The Time Machine (1895), Wells challenged the knowledge of three-dimensional space and conceived theories of time travel using the fourth dimension. By encountering the gentle Eloi of the upper world and the vicious. 17.

(31) Morlocks of the lower world, the Traveller experiences possible futures of human evolution. He has some hypotheses of how the Eloi and Morlocks diverge during human evolution (The Time Machine 68). Although the story was based on time travel adventure, it “was more concerned with where natural selection was taking the human race than with the actual nuts and bolts of time travel” (Chown 46-49). These science fiction writers tend to explore possible human futures and limitations because people are always curious about the unknown. Science and technology is only the mirror to examine and reflect the possibilities of human development.. 政治大 publication of Aldous Huxley’s Brave New World in 1932. Although Huxley’s 立 Discussions and anxiety toward the unknown future unfolded after the. prospect of technological future may seem ordinary nowadays, it surely drew. ‧ 國. 學. attention at the time it was published. Due to rapidly changing technology and. ‧. science, science fiction has transformed with various approaches and focuses. Most of. sit. y. Nat. them have tried to explore externally toward the unknown and possible futures. Space. io. er. exploration became so popular that every country tried its best to be the first who steps into outer space where no one has ever been. The genre itself also followed this. al. n. v i n CDavid change and focused on space voyage. notes that “space voyage functions U h e nSeed i h gc as a device for estranging us from familiar world, enabling external (and usually ironic) perspectives to be set up on Earth” (Seed 6). Most science fictions of the Golden Age dealt with space adventures which explored outside our familiar world.. According to Adam Roberts, the Golden Age of science fiction started around the 1940s and the plots in this era were often regarded as hard science fiction which contained stories about “heroes solving problems or overcoming enemies, expansionist humano-centric (and often phallo-centric) narratives, extrapolations of possible technologies and their social and human impacts” (Roberts 195). The writers in this period envision the consequences of human-centered exploitation and. 18.

(32) exploration such as Isaac Asimov and Arthur C. Clarke. The exploration of a technological future had reached a new stage when NASA’s Apollo mission carried the expectation of science fiction community to the moon in 1969 (Seed 21). Although these imaginary futures presented a world with great technological advancements, the reality did not catch up the pace. The limitation of the achievements let science fiction community down because the reality failed their hopes. Golden Age optimism was hard to maintain and there was denial of hard science fiction (Roberts 230).. 政治大 aesthetics. “What the New Wave did was to take a genre that had been, in its popular 立 Since the 1960s, new wave authors started to appear to open a new form of. mode, more concerned with content and ‘ideas’ than form, style or aesthetics, and. ‧ 國. 學. reconsider it under the logic of the latter three terms” (Roberts 231). Comparing with. ‧. “hard” science fiction which focused on forms and scientific accuracy, new wave. sit. y. Nat. authors emphasized the “soft” ideas of literary experiment. However, cyberpunk. io. er. authors opposed the fact that new wave authors had surrendered under the mainstream that called for literary content and left out the essence of science fiction which was its. al. n. v i n technological prospects and C scientific advancements. h e n g c h i U The term cyberpunk was used in the 1980s by Bruce Bethke who coined the term in his short story “Cyberpunk”. (Roberts 311). Cyberpunk genre authors turned away from the optimism towards the future and created an “urban dystopia” where society is distorted by cybernetics (Roberts 312). They “seem much more interested in the near future and man’s immediate evolution in a world of information, than in a far future” (Ilis 155). Different from traditional forms, cyberpunk authors dealt with “the things of their world, the quiddity, the textures and flavours of actual experience” (Roberts 312). Florina Ilis notes that cyberpunk creates a virtual reality where everything is actualized only when cybernaut (the traveller in cyberspace) participates in this virtual. 19.

(33) reality (Illis 156). After cyberpunk, different themes were involved in the genre. When discussing current science fiction development, Marcus Chown says that “science fiction has morphed into a multitude of forms” in recent years (Chown 46-49). Science fiction is deeply related to technological and scientific development whether it is based on scientific facts or imaginary prospects. Over the years, science fiction continues to include various elements and makes it more vibrant than ever. Although science fiction is rooted in science, we may wonder how far the genre can go with scientific development. Different from hard science fiction, Doctor Who. 政治大 chooses to explain scientifically as some science fiction stories do. In Only Human, 立 is more a science fantasy9 because it neither over-emphasizes the technology nor. the Doctor uses chemicals to make humans spit fire balls in order to defend. ‧ 國. 學. themselves from Hy-Bractors (Only Human 204). This fantasy result is not explained. ‧. scientifically in the story although the reaction has its scientific basis. Some. y. Nat. technologies also remained unexplained, for example, the operation principles of the. er. io. sit. Doctor’s TARDIS and his sonic screwdriver. The sonic screwdriver can access computers, fuse computer controls, open doors, do medical scans, deactivate robots,. al. n. v i n C h & Wright 277). Ken destroy answerphones and others. (Scott Chen describes the sonic engchi U screwdriver as “a magic wand that opens doors” (Chen 53). Scientific accuracy is not emphasized in Doctor Who because it combines fantasy elements which make the stories more powerful. J. R. R. Tolkien emphasizes that fantasy is not exclusive from reason. Fantasy and reason cannot live without each other. “The keener and the clearer is the reason, the better fantasy will it make” (Tolkien 18). Through the worlds of fantasy and science fiction, we can reflect and ponder on our real world with various views and perspectives.. 9. In their introduction to Who-ology, Cavan Scott and Mark Wright view Doctor Who as a science fantasy (Who-logy X).. 20.

(34) Limitation of Science Fiction In his article discussing the future of science fiction, Chown says that some writers fear that “science - and its handmaiden, technology - are changing so fast that it is impossible for science fiction to keep up” (Chown 46-49). It is true that the “furious pace of scientific discovery is making the future ever harder to predict” (Chown 46-49). Science fiction writers cannot accurately predict the future because technology changes so rapidly that it is hard to imagine future achievements. Every discovery can lead to unexpected consequences. In the Golden Age, science and. 政治大 disappointment. Prospects and hopes were aimed high when science fiction emerged 立 technology did not catch up with the pace of science fictions and caused. with technological development which flourished in the 19th century. Science and. ‧ 國. 學. technology are so unpredictable that a tiny change can result in huge impacts.. ‧. However, science fiction writers have followed a predictable path in recent years.. y. Nat. Writers are running out of new ideas that can surpass previous works. Some. er. io. sit. pessimistic writers claim that science fiction “is dead - or, if not dead, in terminal decline” (Chown 46-49). Realizing the possible declination of science fiction, Chown. al. n. v i n C hharder for scienceUfiction writers to predict the states that “it is going to be even engchi. technological developments which will transform our lives” (Chown 46-49). In an interview, science fiction and Doctor Who writer, Paul Cornell, comments on the concept of good science fiction and the remake RoboCop film (2014). He says that “a great science fiction [story is] always a form of satire about what’s happening right now” (Cornell & Savy). Although a story may be set in the far future, “it is often about the here and now rather than the future” (Chown 46-49). In recent years, science fictions (especially in science fiction films) become the battlegrounds of scientific competitions in order to surpass the previous works and to appeal the readers. Cornell says that the original RoboCop (1987) was full of satire but he fears. 21.

(35) that the remake is “replacing some sharp points with action movie” (Cornell & Savy). He observes that science fiction doesn’t “have enough new ideas” when reinventing old ones (Cornell & Savy). Science fiction seems to encounter a dilemma that writers have to keep changing their portrayal of technology in the stories in order to keep it new. Although the writers try to put fresh ideas into their works, they might encounter the difficulties of envisioning the possible futures due to the rapid changes of technology. Even though the writers can freely picture their imaginary worlds as Gibson suggests, they still struggle to find new ideas that are more unique and. 政治大 With the highly-developed technology and science over the years, the 立. original.. exploration of science fiction ideas is set particularly outward. In other words, high-. ‧ 國. 學. tech is excessively used to create these possible worlds and futures. The emphasis is. ‧. more on its spectacle of technological achievements rather than its impact on human. sit. y. Nat. beings. In 1957, Soviet Union launched the first artificial satellite, Sputnik, and. io. er. marked the beginning of the space race between Soviet Union and United States (Boyle). Since the space race, we can find that the exploration or the expedition is the. al. n. v i n C hambition to exploreUthe unknown has grown result of collective human desires. The engchi. stronger since then. Although science fiction cannot be viewed as the fortune-teller of our future lives, it surely can broader our views toward the future. David Seed also says that the “futures represented in SF embody its speculative dimension” (Seed 2). Some of these possible futures might be fulfilled with the enhancement of the technology. Google Glass, launched in 2012, made the computer smaller enough to be wearable in order to get faster and direct access to internet. Samsung started to test new contact lenses with computer inside. In the science fiction series—Continuum, the Protectors (“cybernetically-enhanced” police officers) of the city are implanted with small chips in order to access the information from the database (O’Neill). They. 22.

(36) have “built-in tech that can tell if you are lying or can identify different people's DNA by sight” (O’Neill). Their vision is combined with computers and can easily investigate any case by uploading and downloading every detail. Although this technology is set in 2077, the prospect might be accomplished somehow by the ambition of human desires. Most science fiction stories tend to look forward into the future instead of looking backward. That is, science fiction writers try to come up with the most innovative ideas in order to avoid clichés and old themes. The stories may easily end. 政治大 before others. Doctor Who chooses not to overemphasize scientific accuracy but to 立 up with technological competitions between the writers who try to reach the top. examine closely in humanity and its changes. The freedom of going anywhere in time. ‧ 國. 學. and space “enable[s] a seemingly inexhaustible series of new texts to be generated”. ‧. (Roberts 274). With this premise, many episodes deal with historical events and how. sit. y. Nat. these events interact with or are affected by humans. Human activities and impacts are. io. er. scattered everywhere into time and space during human evolution. This unceasing interaction between humans and the environment breaks the boundaries of different. al. n. v i n C h and qualities of human species and challenges the nature beings. The spontaneous engchi U journeys of the Doctor demonstrate the flexibility of interactions with the world.. Doctor Who examines the fundamental problems of human beings through the fluidity of human identities, bodies and qualities, not through technology-centered plot. The journeys of the Doctor may be driven by himself, unknown forces, or unexpectedly, by the TARDIS. The Doctor likes to explore new destinations and sometimes he enjoys asking his companions to choose their destinations. He said to one of his companion: “[A]ll of time and space, everything that ever happened or ever will where do you want to start?” (Moffat). The seemingly out-bounded exploration becomes retrospective when the adventures encounter different forms of life and. 23.

(37) different aspects of humanity. In order to keep the genre fresh, we have to bear in mind that “science fiction, rather than dying, is changing” (Chown 46-49). Chown notices that science fiction “themes have infiltrated mainstream fiction” and it “has morphed into a multitude of forms” in recent years (Chown 46-49). Thus, we can say that science and technology are so common that humans can hardly escape their influences. Human beings change, so does science fiction. “Science fiction is the literature of change… [a]s long as change is an integral part of our lives, science fiction is likely to survive” (Chown. 政治大 visions through the experiences of technological impacts. Although innovations keep 立 46-49). Science fiction can continue to live on only by creating hybrid ideas and. it alive, science fiction still need to come back to its valuable purpose—to show the. ‧ 國. 學. consequences of the explorations, how we deal with these changes and “the impact on. ‧. humanity” (Cornell & Savy). By examining the changes in science fiction, human. sit. y. Nat. beings may find themselves evolving with it and have the opportunity to re-value. io. n. al. er. these changes of human legacies.. Ch. engchi. 24. i n U. v.

(38) Chapter Three Transhuman Dilemma: Metamorphosis of Humanity Through the history of science fiction, many authors have often hoped to create imaginary worlds and ideas that no one has ever conceived. However, the stories may lose their depth and impact when the focuses are just on technologies without reflecting our current conditions. In other words, science fiction stories may become a. 政治大 longer on human impacts 立and consequences. With rapid growth of technological. tool of showing off innovative technologies when the examination and focus are no. ‧ 國. 學. influences and exposure, imaginary future technologies in science fictions may be appreciated by the viewers because we live in a world built on technology (tools,. ‧. machines, and computers). Most people are now experiencing the advantages of. sit. y. Nat. technology because it brings convenience and other benefits. The advancement of. n. al. er. io. medical science and pharmacology alleviates pains from diseases and aging. In Only. i n U. v. Human, after having a basic understanding of the future people of Osterberg, the. Ch. engchi. Doctor explains to Rose that they “introduced genes that cure almost everything, with regular updates sprayed out to keep everyone healthy” (Only Human 88). As a result, the Osterbergers all wear badges that eliminate what is described in the novel as their “wrong-feelings”. The surface observer—Reddy—tells Rose how they all feel about the “wrongfeelings” and the disturbing emotions. He says lightly: “Why disagree when you can party?” (Only Human 105). Eliminating the downsides of natural aging is rather tempting because the advancements tend to make us feel better. After kidnapping the Doctor, Chantal alters his body condition by chemistry so the Doctor may not feel any. 25.

(39) “wrong-feeling” again. To his surprise, the Doctor feels good about his contentment and calmness (Only Human 132-33). People tend to choose those feelings that are comfortable instead of those disturbing ones although sometimes these disturbing feelings can trigger us to strive harder. People embrace the transhuman idea of improving the inconvenience while worrying the side effects and consequences of these modifications. Transhumanism is criticized for being too optimistic toward the combination of humans and technology. Cory Doctorow views techno-optimism as “an ideology that embodies the pessimism and the optimism above: the concern that. 政治大 make the world better” (Doctorow). Nevertheless, the optimism toward the 立. technology could be used to make the world worse, the hope that it can be steered to. technology-enhanced future keeps society looking forward. This optimism toward a. ‧ 國. 學. better future is practiced by transhumanists who try their best to call for freedom of. ‧. human bodies. As a result, they over-emphasize the good side of enhancing human. sit. y. Nat. bodies with new technologies. When discussing transhumanism, issues of morality are. io. er. definitely involved. It is hard to avoid any judgment during the debates; however, this chapter is going to focus on the transformation of humans and its possible definitions.. al. n. v i n Cwe In order to understand human nature, might want to start with the definition of he ngchi U humans and then we can move on to transhumanism and its metamorphosis. Definition of Human In a recent study, scientists find that the Earth had changed drastically due to human activities in 1610 which marked the start point of the “Age of Man” called. Anthropocene. “To pinpoint the start of this new phase, geologists are looking for a clear signal… that will be captured in rocks, sediments or ice” (Morelle). Scientists postulate that the arrival of the Europeans in the Americas earlier caused the changes. It was the time when global exchange (people, agriculture and diseases) became rapid. 26.

(40) and the Earth started to transform (Morelle). Since then, human beings have dominated the world and have occupied nearly everywhere. What makes us special enough to overpower other species and how do we define ourselves? Generally speaking, we can say that humans share, feel and create in a more sophisticated system. However, “it’s very hard to define what we think is special about humanity because it’s we, the humans, who are composing the definitions. Objectivity is impossible” (Gee 106). Creativity may be considered one of the qualities that makes us human because “we are cultural beings, capable of wondrous works” (Jones).. 政治大 invented writings. In Only Human, Quilley has a poster on a wall which shows 立. Homo sapiens and their close relatives have left drawing of animals on cave walls and. “drawings of a variety of animals – bears, wolves, mammoths” (Only Human 68). In. ‧ 國. 學. order to maintain cultural legacy, humans put down their thoughts and store memories. ‧. using language systems.. sit. y. Nat. In Only Human, there are three forms of record—diary, journal, and data-record.. io. er. At the very beginning of the novel, seven-year-old Chantal describes her weekend with a specific date and an interesting event (Only Human 1-2). Then, the novel. al. n. v i n C h is asked by Captain showcases Das, the Neanderthal, Jack Harkness to keep a journal engchi U because writing can clear things up (Only Human 71-74). On the other hand, Jack. Harkness observes Das and put it down as data-records so anthropologists can study them (Only Human 75-77). Das explains his recognition of writing: “What it means is that instead of keeping your thoughts in yourself, or letting them out by saying or singing them, you let them out of your head and put them into small markings” (Only Human 71). When the Doctor explains the pros and cons of the disaster of A.D. 436,000, Quilley is busy writing them down with a pencil (Only Human 86). He is the only person from Osterberg who keeps “historical artefacts” as his collection. Compared with other Osterbergers, Quilley is the one who is eager to live in the past. 27.

(41) because the historical records are very limited from his time (Only Human 84). What makes this recording system special is its longevity. Through writing, we can preserve our minds and thoughts not only for the sharing of this generation, but also future generations. “Through language, we can share accounts of what’s going on, what might be going on, what cannot be going on, what we would like to be going on” (Dawes 279). It is intriguing that humans desire knowledge not only of his age, but also the past and the future. The Osterbergers travel to the past in order to learn more details about the ancestors (Only Human 81). The ability to desire, to acquire. 政治大 know; not only to know, but through intelligent inquiry and critical reflection, to 立. and to know everything seems human. “We are driven by an unrestricted desire to. know correctly; and not only to know well but to know completely” (Dawes 279). By. ‧ 國. 學. keeping records, everyone contributes his or her own experience into our collective. ‧. memories.. sit. y. Nat. According to research, Homo sapiens dominate the world because they may be. io. er. more adaptive than most species and they can preserve and gain access to knowledge using writings and languages. “Intelligence is all about the retrieval of information in. al. n. v i n C h and appliedUto new situations” (Gee such a way that its lessons can be generalized engchi. 145). Our close relative—Neanderthals—and Homo sapiens have a lot in common in regard to genetic origins10 and social activities. Studies have shown that “Neanderthals’ appearance was similar to ours, though they were shorter and stockier with angled cheekbones, prominent brow ridges, and wide noses. Though sometimes thought of as dumb brutes, scientists have discovered that they used tools, buried their. 10. Studies have shown that Neanderthals share a common ancestor with Homo sapiens. Although the ancestor is not specifically identified, one popular candidate is Homo Heidelbergensis who populated Africa and Eurasia during that time. A group of Homo Heidelbergensis migrated to Eurasia and became Neanderthals while another group migrated to Asia and became Denisovans. Homo Heidelbergensis who remained in Africa gradually evolved into Homo sapiens. “In the ranks of prehistoric humans, Neanderthals were our closest relatives” (Switek).. 28.

(42) dead and controlled fire, among other intelligent behaviors… and it is even theorized that they built boats and sailed on the Mediterranean” (Szalay). Nevertheless, some scientists have speculated that Neanderthals’ language ability and brain function may not be as complex as Homo sapiens. “Neanderthals used stone tools similar to and no more sophisticated than the ones used by early humans, including blades and scrapers made from stone flakes” (Szalay). Their ability of producing tools is similar to Homo sapiens although they tend to form smaller groups which result in less complicated social system. “Neanderthals were a lot less sociable than modern humans. They. 政治大 likely to come across other members of their own species” (Gee 144). In Only 立. tended to live in smaller groups, had smaller home ranges, and were therefore less. Human, when Rose asks Reddy about Neanderthals, he comments that they are. ‧ 國. 學. strange and don’t talk much (Only Human 104). It is described in the story that the. ‧. Homo sapiens are more active than the Neanderthals because readers can notice. sit. y. Nat. abundant activities from the human groups such as playing games, sorting fruits,. io. er. carrying fishes and chatting (Only Human 130). Compared with the activities of Homo sapiens, those of Neanderthals are less skillful (Only Human 109). Although. al. n. v i n C h above have not been the postulations and descriptions confirmed by the scientists, engchi U sociability may become one of the key factors that distinguish a species. After. observing the activities of socially-active animals, Henry Gee concludes and says: “Perhaps the earth was inherited not by creatures with larger brains, or the most intelligence, but with the busiest social calendar” (Gee 144). Later in the Neanderthal group, there is an invasion from humans which shows different behaviors between Neanderthals and humans (Only Human 117-18). The Neanderthals treat Rose and Reddy with friendliness and peacefulness while the humans invade and act rudely toward outsiders. Rose later finds out that the humans are not as ferocious as she thinks. The atmosphere in the human tribe is rather relaxed. 29.

(43) and cheerful (Only Human 130). As described in the story, we can say that humans are more active than Neanderthals in social behaviors. They are more competitive and active when interacting with other groups such as exchanging goods with other tribes. Rose realizes that human tribes use “trade partnerships” to form strong alliances (Only Human 136). As a social animal, humans communicate with each other using language system. Rose notices that the men in the human tribe chat “good humouredly” to each other (Only Human 130). “By social grooming, social animals use different modes of languages to achieve the same outcome (to communicate).. 政治大 (Gee 146-156). Humans use writing and recording to reinforce their communication 立. Language is not specialized for human beings while writing may be a human thing.”. system. The ability to write makes human beings preserve many precious cultural. ‧ 國. 學. legacies. With our knowledge derived from generations, human beings have created. ‧. the most complicated social system and many great civilizations.. sit. y. Nat. In conclusion, in order to achieve the position that we hold, it requires consistent. io. er. contribution of sharing knowledge (languages and writings) under a social system which is strengthened by sentience. “A sentient being will be aware of itself as a. al. n. v i n Cthus character in the drama of its life, and of the consequences of its actions on h eaware ngchi U others, and to some extent of the internal mental states of the other characters” (Gee 157). Such complexity performed in a social group can only be enacted by human beings. Homo sapiens not only can feel and create, but also can perceive the world by acquiring organized knowledge which comes from constant interactions with others. Transhumanism and its Dilemma With faster transportation and information access, people can travel abroad within days and gain knowledge within seconds. The constant interaction results in more “made-things” which are based upon human needs (Only Human 39).. 30.

(44) Technology helps humans to accomplish the impossible far beyond our limitations. We can run without using our legs and fly without wings. As a result, human behaviors change drastically with these “tools” while these tools are aimed to help us become better and stronger. Hoping for an unlimited future, transhumanists propose to embrace the help from technology. Transhuman movement “promises results and marvels that will free us forever from the woes and evils that have plagued human history: death and disease, ignorance and selfishness, will all be overcome” (Jensen 515). Sonia E. Miller defines transhumanism as “an intermediary stage between. 政治大 merger between humans and technology (Vita-More 35). Through this process, 立. human and the posthuman” (Miller 61). The process of transhumanism functions as a. humans’ biological conditions can be reformed and transcended (Miller 61). With the. ‧ 國. 學. help of technological advancement, we have more freedom in deciding what is the. ‧. most beneficial; thus, we tend to make ourselves more adaptive through self-. sit. y. Nat. enhancing. “Homo economicus” means that everyone is his or her own entrepreneur. io. er. and should be responsible for his or her actions (Foucault 147). With this idea, transhumanists strive to make this liberation possible. They hope that everyone can. al. n. v i n C h and go beyondU“current biological limitations” live without disease or malfunctions engchi (Miller 61). “This movement seeks to enhance human beings, giving them greater. strength, intelligence, perception, and so on” (Jensen 516). In the novel, Chantal tells the Doctor that she is designing an upgraded human race who is more “adaptable, intelligent, and creative” (Only Human 188). Through constantly self-improving modifications, humans become transhuman. Transhuman stage is the merging process between humans and technology which is aimed for a future where everyone is free from pains and limitations. This future is a vision proposed by transhumanists who are optimistic toward the combination of humans and machines. “Posthumanism is an attitude on how to deal with the. 31.

(45) limitations of the human form. It is a vision of how to move beyond those limits by the radical use of technological and other means” (Ust). Posthumanism is seeking an extreme human liberation which hopes for full enhancement of body and mind. Miller notes that posthuman stage follows transhuman process as it “postulates the advancement of unlimited mental or physical augmentation and alteration, immortality through self-programming and self-regulating abilities, and age- and disease-resistant mechanism” (Miller 62). However, it is difficult to define what it means to be human because humans are always changing and evolving. We can say. 政治大 destined for the posthuman future. Transhuman process is happening right now while 立 that the transhuman process makes humans evolve constantly; nevertheless, it is not. posthuman future is yet to be achieved. Through the concept of transhumanism, we. ‧ 國. 學. can tell that human essence is flowing because we are deeply influenced by the. ‧. changes of the environment. Transhumanists map out the world where humans can. sit. y. Nat. embrace the emergence of technological modifications. However, the emphasis on. io. er. technology makes transhuman ideas restricted and incomprehensible. The maximized awareness of technological modifications may lead to anxiety and ethical problems.. al. n. v i n Although transhumanists claimCthat they only exploreUthe interaction between hengchi. humans and the world, not the enhancement of human functions, they still attract. criticism regarding moral issues (Daly). Of course, there are different groups who are supporting transhumanism and they have different foci. Their goal remains the same—to accept the condition that humans embrace technology and benefit from it. The concerns and anxieties can vary in two ways—one is about the transformation of human body and the other is about the attitude of the transhuman propaganda. The public gradually aware the fact that humans may be replaced by machines (such as stent or life support system) when we try to cure terminal diseases or maintain our body functions by using technology. “There is understandable anxiety aroused by the. 32.