1‐1 Introduction
With the rapidly evolving knowledge in the biomedical field of today there is increasing demand for materials that can meet the needs of new applications. One specific application is depot systems for sustained drug delivery. Depot systems hold the benefit of providing sustained drug release over long times, as well as being able to provide local therapeutic effect. There are several challenges in the design of materials to be used in such systems. The materials should allow for high loading of hydrophobic drugs and control of the release process1. In the case of implantable depot systems the administration should be easy, such as injectable in vivo gelling formulations. Furthermore, the materials should be biocompatible in their given application. Obviously, the materials used should be non‐toxic, and non‐irritant for transdermal applications. For implantable devices the mechanical properties of the device are of great importance as well, it has been stated that “the mechanical property of the interface between an implant and its surrounding tissues is critical for the host response and the performance of the device2.”
Chitosan and alginate are two natural polymers that are biodegradable, biocompatible, non‐toxicity, and mucoadhesive3. Because of those desirable properties they are commonly used in biomedical applications as drug delivery systems, tissue engineered scaffold, and in food industry as stabilizers, thickeners and gelling agents3‐7. Amphiphilic chemically‐modified
chitosan, named carboxymethyl‐hexanoyl chitosan (CHC), has been synthesized in an aqueous system without the aid of surfactants, organic solvents, emulsion phases, or template cores, to form a hollow nanocapsule6, 7. The CHC has excellent encapsulating efficient for hydrophobic drugs due to its self‐assembly properties. The hydrophobic regions interact in aqueous solution and should promote the incorporation of hydrophobic drugs.
Alginate is a linear block copolymer by linear and anionic polysaccharides composed of homopolymeric blocks of α‐ ‐guluronate (G) and β‐ ‐mannuronate (M) residues3, 8, 9. The relative number of M‐ or G‐blocks depends on the origin of alginate. Alginate polymers have not been found to accumulate in any major organs and show evidence of in vivo degradation8. The most important property of alginates is their ability to form gels by interaction with divalent cations such as Ca2+. The gelation and cross‐linking of the polymers are mainly achieved by interaction between the carboxyl groups and the divalent cations, and the stacking of these G‐blocks to form the characteristic egg‐box structure3, 10‐12. Besides, sodium alginate (SAL) also has the ability to form gels by the exchange of sodium ions from the G‐blocks with the divalent cations.
In recent therapeutic applications, an important challenge is to overcome the problem with achieving high loading of hydrophobic drugs and to control the release process1. The advantage of amphiphilic copolymers or modified polymer micelles for drug delivery systems is based on the characteristic that such polymer materials tend to form micelles, having size
on the nanoscale and the ability to encapsulate and release hydrophobic compounds. In addition, such drug carriers can commonly be designed to be biocompatible and/or biodegradable13‐15. Amphiphilic copolymers or modified polymers have been found to self‐assemble into nanoscale micelle‐like structures, defined by their core‐shell architecture in aqueous solution15‐17. The incorporation of hydrophobic drugs into such polymer micelle nanoparticles provides a feasible method to overcome the poor solubility of such drugs in aqueous solution and is applicable to numerous applications, for example, hydrogel based drug delivery systems. Gou et al. presented the idea to combine a nanoscale carrier and hydrogel into a composite dual structure delivery system for hydrophobic drug release18, inspired by similar reports about micro‐ or nano‐particles in thermo‐sensitive hydrogel composite drug delivery systems19, 20.
Particulate additives, which are dispersed in a gel network, can have drastic impact on the rheological properties, depending on additive concentration, modulus and the extent of addition‐gel matrix interaction21‐23. Taking the attributes of the fillers and the gel matrix into consideration, two ultimate cases can be discriminated: (1) No interaction between the gel matrix and the dispersed particles; this result causes a decrease in gel modulus with increasing polymer volume fraction. (2) A strong interaction between the fillers and the matrix; this result causes an increase in modulus of the gel with the increasing polymer volume fraction if the filler material is stiffer than the gel matrix24. If the fillers have a much
low particle size comparing with gel matrix and no interaction with the matrix, there will be no effect on rheological properties. This phenomenon was presented on an alginate gel matrix with glycerol or low molecular weight dextran as fillers which showed an increasing viscosity in gel liquid phase but no effect in gel rheological properties25, 26. In addition, if the fillers are small but interact strongly with the matrix, they may act crosslinking, thus increasing the modulus. As an example, it has been shown that the addition of a small amount of cellulose nanofibers can cause a significant increase of mechanical properties for composite gels27 as compared to the reference sample28, 29.
The rheological properties of hydrogel systems are of great importance. For applications, the rheological properties in many cases determine the performance of a device, for implantable devices it has actually been proposed that “the mechanical property of the interface between an implant and its surrounding tissues is critical for the host response and the performance of the device”.2 In addition, the rheological properties of hydrogel samples provide important information on the structure and interactions present in the samples.
In this study, amphiphilic chitosan was successfully synthesized in this lab and used as hydrophobic drug carrier. The composite gels of sodium alginate and micelle‐like amphiphilic carboxymethyl‐hexanoyl chitosan nanoparticles were prepared in various compositions, varying the SAL and CHC content, the amount of glycerol in the gel forming solution and the amount of calcium chloride in the gelation media. The composite gels were characterized
with regard to a number of properties such as; gelation time, equilibrium swelling, rheological properties and self‐healing, protection of drug versus degradation and release of hydrophobic drugs. The dependences of the gel properties on the compositions of the hydrogels were then discussed.
1‐2 Literature review
1‐2‐1 Introduction of alginate based hydrogels 1‐2‐1‐1 Formation of alginate hydrogels
Alginate is a linear block copolymer by linear and anionic polysaccharides composed of homopolymeric blocks of α‐ ‐guluronate (G) and β‐ ‐mannuronate (M) residues as shown in Fig. 1‐1. The gelation of alginate can be carried out under an extremely mild environment and uses non‐toxic reactants. Alginate based hydrogels can be prepared by extruding a solution of sodium alginate containing the desired protein, as droplets, in to a divalent cross‐linking solution such as Ca2+, Sr2+, or Ba2+. Monovalent cations and Mg2+ ions do not induce gelation30. The gelation and cross‐linking of the polymers are mainly achieved by interaction between the carboxyl groups and the divalent cations, and the stacking of these G‐blocks to form the characteristic egg‐box structure. The divalent cations bind to the α‐ ‐guluronate (G) acid blocks in a highly cooperative manner and the size of the cooperative unit is more than 20 monomers31. Each alginate chain dimerizes to form junctions with many other chains and as a result gel networks are formed.
Fig. 1‐1 The structure of of α‐ ‐guluronate (G) and β‐ ‐mannuronate (M) residues30.
Fig. 1‐2 Schematic representation of association of polyguluronate sequences by chelation of Ca2+: “egg‐box model”. Below: Section; oxygen atoms coordinated to calcium are shown as filled circles30.
1‐2‐1‐2 Previous investigations of alginate based hydrogels
The functional and physical properties of cation crosslinked alginate hydrogels are dependent on the composition, sequential structure, and molecular size of polymers. The flexibility of the alginate polymers in solution increases in the other MG MM GG32. Hydrogels with the lowest shrinkage, highest mechanical strength, highest porosity, and best stability towards monovalent cations are made from alginate with an α‐ ‐guluronate acid content greater than 70 % and an average length of the α‐ ‐guluronate acid blocks higher than 15. The gel strength is independent of the molecular weight33. However, for lower molecular weight alginates, there is a certain critical molecular weight below which the gel forming properties of alginates are reduced34. There are many factors involved in determining the successful application of polymers as drug delivery carriers in humans, with polymer biocompatibility or/and immunogenicity being two of the more important issues.
There are numerous reports addressing the fibrotic reaction of implanted alginates. Most authors agree that the chemical composition and the mitogenic contaminants found in alginates are the two main contributors to alginate immunogenicity35‐37. The bioadhesive property which could serve as a potential advantage in mucosal drug delivery is one of the biological properties for alginate. The term bioadhesion can be generally defined as the adhesion or contact between two surfaces, with one being a biological substratum38. Peppas and colleagues believed that mucoadhesion is achieved by chain penetration across a
polymer‐mucosa interface39. Mucoadhesive drug delivery systems work by increasing the drug residence time at the site of activity or resorption. This mucoadhesive feature of alginate may aid in its utility as a potential delivery vehicle for drugs to mucosal tissues. The adherence of these microbeads to the mucosal tissues localizes the drug and delays the protein transit time, therefor potentially improving the overall drug effectiveness and bioavailability. By selection of the appropriate alginate type, gelation conditions, added excipients, and coating agents, matrices of various morphologies, pore size, water content and dehydration rates can be fabricated.
1‐2‐2 Introduction of particulate carriers based on modified chitosan
1‐2‐2‐1 Introduction of chitosan properties
Chitosan is a linear copolymer polysaccharide consisting of β(1‐4)‐linked 2‐amino‐2‐deoxy‐ ‐glucose ( ‐glucosamine) and 2‐acetamido‐2‐deoxy‐ ‐glucose (N‐acetyl‐ ‐glucosamine) units as shown in Fig. 1‐3. The term chitosan is used to describe a series of polymers of different degrees of deacetylation (DD), defined in terms of the percentage of primary amino groups in the polymer backbone, from chitin by alkaline hydrolysis at high temperature and average molecular weights (MW). The DD of typical commercial chitosan is usually between 70 % and 95 %, and the MW between 10 and 1000 kDa. The properties, biodegradability and biological role of chitosan are frequently
dependent on the relative proportions of N‐acetyl‐ ‐glucosamine and ‐glucosamine residues.
Chitosan has been widely used in food industry and biomedical filed by their excellent biological properties such as biocompatibility, biodegradability, nontoxicity, and mucoadhesiveness. Chitosan is metabolized by certain human enzymes, especially lysozyme, and is considered biodegradable40. However, the poor soluble character in water and common organic solvent of chitosan has been limited its wide‐spread utilization. Hence, many researchers utilize an important property of chitosan that can undergo chemical modification very easily. The presence of free amino groups in the backbone of chitosan contributes to increase the reactivity of the polymer. Chitosan can therefore be readily modified by reactions at the amino groups. This property provides an opportunity to improve the chemical and mechanical properties of chitosan for the purpose of wide biological applications. Consequently, hydrophilically, hydrophobically, and amphiphilically modified chitosan derivatives are investigated to improve the solubility. Besides, several covalent modifications are also studied to improve the drug delivery properties of chitosan. By simple covalent modifications of the polymer such as thiolated chitosan and trimethylated chitosan, its physicochemical properties can be changed and can be made suitable for further biomedical applications such as oral drug delivery system.
Fig. 1‐3 The chemical structure of chitosan3.
1‐2‐2‐2 Amphiphilic chemically‐modified chitosan as drug carrier
In our laboratory, a new type of chitosan hollow structure, i.e., carboxymethyl‐hexanoyl chitosan (CHC) as shown in Fig. 1‐4, which was modified first by hydrophilic carboxymethylation to increase the flexibility of chitosan molecular chains in water followed by hydrophobic modification with hexanoyl groups to add amphiphilic character, was employed to study its self‐aggregation behavior to form nanocapsule in aqueous solution and nanostructural evolution. The stability of nancapsules and formation mechanism of the CHC macromolecules were explored through the use of critical aggregation concentration (CAC), zeta potential, electron microscopy, and dynamic light scatter (DLS). By taking the advantage of self‐aggregation nature, the CHC was employed to encapsulate doxorubicin (DOX), an anticancer agent of broad spectrum with reasonable therapeutic index and intriguing biological and physicochemical actions41, to further understand its loading efficiency and release behavior. Liu et al. found that the amphiphilic chitosan (CHC) was
employed to self‐assemble into a hollow nanocapsule in an aqueous environment. The self‐assembly behavior of the CHC is fundamentally determined as an interplay between the hydrophobic interaction and the variation of the zeta potential upon hexanoyl substitution, which further influenced the nanostructural evolution of the nanocapsules. Higher hexanoyl substitution promoted larger nanocapsules, ca. 200 nm in diameter, while a reduced zeta potential was correspondingly detected, and vice versa, forming smaller nanocapsules, ca. 20 nm in diameter. The self‐assemble mechanism, together with the corresponding nanostructural stability, of this unique CHC nanocapsule was also proposed in terms of intermolecular interaction and thermodynamic reason. By taking the advantage of the self‐assemble (or self‐aggregation) capability, the CHC was employed for drug encapsulation, i.e., doxorubicin, an anticancer molecule; we found in this preliminary evaluation that it reached an efficiency of 46.8 %, and a corresponding drug release from the nanocapsules for a time period exceeded 7 days can be achieved in vitro.
Fig. 1‐4 Molecular structure of carboxymethyl‐hexanoyl chitosan (CHC)6.