L ITERATURE R EVIEW

In the first chapter I will use the works of scholars, which already made studies on the contextual background of Jung’s synchronicity principle and Jung’s own critique of modernity. Significant scholars in studying the contextual background are Roderick Main, Peter Homans, Sonu Shamdasani, J.J. Clarke, and Michael Smith.

Roderick Main’s Rupture of Time (Synchronicity and Jung’s Critique of Modern Western Culture) exposes that theory of synchronicity radically challenged the entrenched assumptions of mainstream modern culture in the West. It aims to clarify what Jung really meant by synchronicity, why the idea was so important to him and how it informed his thinking about modern western culture. Book examines the wide range of personal,

intellectual and social contexts of Jung's thinking on synchronicity and how Jung himself applied the theory of synchronicity within his critique of science, religion, and society.

Peter Homans in Jung in Context (Modernity and the Making of a Psychology) describes social, personal, religious, and cultural context of Jung’s system of psychology and indentifies the central role of depth psychology in the culture of modernity.

In Sonu Shamdasani’s book Jung and the Making of Modern Psychology (The Dream of a Science) we can find a comprehensive study of the formation of Jung’s psychology and a new account of the rise of modern psychology and psychotherapy. It reconstructs the reception of Jung’s work in the human sciences, and its impact on the social and intellectual history of the twentieth century.

J.J. Clarke wrote a significant work Jung and Eastern Thought where he discusses Jung’s dialogues with the philosophical ideas of the East, from Buddhism, Daoism, to Indian Yoga, and his writings on Yi Jing, The Tibetan Book of The Dead and various essays on Zen, Eastern meditation, and the symbolism of mandala.

Michael Smith in his work Jung and Shamanism in Dialogue makes a comparison between Jung and shaman and comes to a conclusion that Jung’s psychology is very similar to shamanistic practices. Author describes the main characteristics of a shaman from shamanic initiation, dismemberments, disassociation, grief, despair, and soul loss, the healing power of ritual, ecstasy and other altered states. The book also explores many rich topics including the role of talismans and amulets, the various levels of the collective

unconscious, the archetypal and imaginable perspectives on such phenomena, and implications for psychotherapeutic practice today.

Considering Jung’s own critique of modernity significant essays are “New Paths in Psychology”, “The Spiritual Problem of Modern Man”, “Religion as the Counterbalance to Mass-Mindedness”, and “Psychology and Religion”. In “New Paths is Psychology” Jung reveals the shortcomings of scientific paradigm, which is unable to explain the actions of unconscious. He suggests new methodology in the field of psychology, which would be able to explain psyche from holistic perspective. In “Spiritual Problem of Modern Man”

Jung exposes the problem of modern man, who is overly rationalistic and extroverted, which causes a split of personality. The personality that is emphasized is the one he/she shows to external world, while the inner personality is neglected, which causes pathological inclinations. In essays “Religion and the Counterbalance to Mass-Mindedness” and

“Psychology and Religion” is a critique of Christian religion. Jung accuses religion lost its true meaning and became institutionalized to serve the political and social needs, but not the needs of individual. In religion Jung emphasizes the religious experience, which should find expression in one’s psyche as a numinous experience that would contribute to the spiritual growth of an individual.

In the second chapter the significant works are those of Carl Jung, “Synchronicity: An acausal connecting principle” (1952), his lecture “On Synchronicity” (1951), and “On the Nature of the Psyche”. The first one was published in a volume entitled The Interpretation of Nature and the Psyche alongside an essay on Johannes Kepler by Wolfgang Pauli. The second was presented at Eranos conferences in 1951. In “Synchronicity: An acausal

connecting principle” and his “On Synchronicity” Jung explains some of the characteristics of synchronicity principle. On the examples taken from his own life and life of his patients he offers a partial definition of synchronicity principle. Inside Jung also describes the famous Rhine’s ESP experiment and his own astrological experiment.

I also used Suzanne Gieser’s The Innermost Kernel (Depth Psychology and Quantum Physics), David Lindorff’s Pauli and Jung (The Meeting of Two Great Minds), which both describe the collaboration between Jung and physicist Wolfgang Pauli (1900 - 1958), and Robert Aziz’s C.G. Jung’s Psychology of Religion and Synchronicity and The Syndetic Paradigm: The Untrodden Path Beyond Freud and Jung.

Suzanne Gieser’s central question is why was Pauli interested in Jung's psychology, and how was this interest expressed? The work is divided into three main sections. The first presents the general historical, intellectual and philosophical background of the dialogue between Pauli and Jung. The second section takes a closer look at the connection between physics and depth psychology, by focusing on two representatives of the Copenhagen school and presenting their views on this matter: Pascual Jordan and Niels Bohr. A comparison of Bohr's and Jung's epistemological standpoints is also undertaken. The third section discusses the specific philosophical bases of Pauli's interest in the psychology of Carl G. Jung and explores some of the main issues discussed in their correspondence as for instance the relation of conscious and unconscious, the theory of archetypes, the process underlying concept-formation, the psychology of scientific discovery and the theory of synchronicity.

David Lindorff on the basis of letters between Pauli and Jung writes a story of collaboration between the two great minds and reveals the interest in both to combine psyche, physics and spirit. Pauli on the basis of his dream interpretation believed there is an archetypal background also in scientific work and that science should strive to join psyche and physics into one discipline. Extremely significant in scientific process is the presence of the observer, who affects the nature of the scientific process. This lead to a definition of the new term in synchronicity theory, that is ‘psychoid’ which signified the point where physical and psyche connect and cause the synchronicity event to occur. In this way archetype was connected to matter.

Robert Aziz’s two studies are dealing with Jung’s theory of synchronicity, how it fits inside his depth psychology and how synchronicity principle upgraded Jung’s psychology into the theory of unus mundus. The difference between the two is that the first one acknowledges that Jung’s synchronicity principle enables Jung to go beyond limits of his psychology and offers a holistic perspective on the world and human being. The second work is the complete opposite to the first, saying Jung was trapped inside his own psychology paradigm based on archetypes and was unable to perceive synchronicity principle outside his psychology, as part of the whole nature. I detailed discussion about Aziz’s own contradiction is offered in Methodology chapter.

In the fourth chapter, the significant works are Jung’s “Foreword to I Ching”,

“Synchronicity: An acausal connecting principle”, Ira Progoff’s Jung, Synchronicity, and Human Destiny (Noncausal Dimensions of Human Experience), Young Woon Ko’s doctoral dissertation Synchronicity and Creativity: A Comparison Between C.G. Jung and

the Book of Changes on Causality, and Yang Rubin’s 楊儒賓 article〈從氣之感通到貞一 之道 ──《易傳》對占卜現象的解釋與轉化〉〉. I also included the short history of Yi Jing discussed by Gao Huaimin’s 高懷民 《先秦易學史》and article discussing similarity between Carl Jung’s synchronicity principle and Chinese ganying 感應 principle from Zhang Xian 彰賢.

In “Foreword to I Ching” Jung expresses his admiration for Yi Jing and Richard Wilhelm, who translated Yi Jing into German in 1924. Jung at the same time critiques particularism and reductionism of western scientific spirit, which is not able to grasp the wholeness of situation, whereas Yi Jing offers a holistic perspective, which encompasses object and subject and works according to synchronicity principle. At the same time he briefly describes the method for using Yi Jing and makes two experiments using the three-coin method. The first question Jung asks is the current situation of Yi Jing, that is about his intention to present it to the West, and he obtained the hexagram 50, The Caldron (ding 鼎).

The second question was about Jung’s actions on Yi Jing, for which he received the hexagram 29, The Abysmal (kan 坎).

In “Synchronicity: An acausal connecting principle” Jung discusses about Yi Jing on page 49 to 52, where we can obtain Carl Jung’s positive attitude towards the book. He describes it as the intuitive techniques for grasping the total situation, criticizing the limited laboratory experiment, and describing the method for divination using yarrow stalks and coins.

An extensive text on experimenting with Yi Jing and its methodology is described in Ira Progoff’s work, especially in chapter two and three. Ira Progoff personally met with Jung and under his guidance consulted the Yi Jing using three coins method. Ira also offers a definition for the technique used in working with Zhou Yi, which he calls the technique of correlation, which he developed in his program Dialogical House Intensive Journal program.

Young Woon Ko’s doctoral dissertation Synchronicity and Creativity: A Comparison Between C.G. Jung and the Book of Changes on Causality, uses Kenneth Pike’s “emic” and

“etic” distinction and warns about Jung’s etic interpretation of Yi Jing about which I discuss in details in chapter four.

Gao Huaimin 高懷民 discusses the history of Yi Jing from Eastern and Western Zhou (c.

1046 BC–256 BC) till Spring and Autumn period (c. 771 - 476 BC) and displays its structure from hexagrams, commentaries, lines, to Ten Wings. Gao Huaimin divides Yi Jing’s history according to its interpretation, that is natural philosophy, spiritualism and moral metaphysics.

Yang Rubin discusses the divination act of Yi Jing and connects it to Carl Jung’s synchronicity principle. Yang Rubin on the examples from Yi Zhuan shows that the act of divination and its efficiency relies on the principle of ganying (感應), which is similar to Jung’s synchronicity principle. At the same time he exposes the symbolical language of Yi Jing, through which one is able to obtain the true meaning about the nature of inner and

outer. In the end Yang Rubin defines the mode of thinking of Zhou Yi, which is symbolical synchronicity (tongshi zhi fuxiangxing 同時之符象性).

In the last, fifth chapter, the significant works are from professor Lai Guisan 賴貴三 and his article〈省思唐君毅、牟宗三、徐復觀《易》學的時代意義與價值〉where Mou Zongsan’s work on Yi-studies is systematically listed and it reveals the content of each of his works. At the same time it mentions the main characteristics of Mou Zongsan’s Yi-studies, which evolved from natural philosophy to moral metaphysics. Mou Zongsan’s works on Yi-studies I used in my studies are the following:《四因說演講錄》and《周易 哲學演講錄》, which were recorded and written by Mou Zongsan’s student and later professor Hu Xuekun 盧雪崑. 《周易哲學演講錄》 is most significant in the analysis and interpretation of Yi Jing, where Mou Zongsan following the School of Meanings and Interpretations (yili 義 理 ), on the basis of Yi Zhuan exposes the aspect of moral metaphysics in Yi Jing. He derives some of the main concepts considering Zhou Yi’s onto-cosmology and moral metaphysics. These are the following: “Dual Emphasis on the hexagrams of Qian and Kun” (qiankun bingjian 乾 坤 併 建 ), the “Coexistence of Transcendental and Innate” (chaoyue neizai 超越內在)⁴⁶, yijian 易簡 and shen 神. In the second work 《四因說演講錄》, chapters dealing with Yi Jing are chapter one, three and four, where Mou Zongsan uses Aristotel’s Four Causes theory to interpret some of the

46 張健捷：〈乾坤併建超越內在 （牟宗三後期易學思想研究）〉，《周易研究》，2005年第5期，頁47－54.

fundamental contents in Yi Jing, such as the process of inner moral cultivation (neizai de daodexing 內在的道德性).