以牟宗三的道德形上學詮釋榮格的同時性原理

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(1)國立臺灣師範大學國際與僑教學院東亞學系碩士論文 Department of East Asian Studies College of International Studies and Education for Overseas Chinese . National Taiwan Normal University Master Thesis . Carl G. Jung’s Synchronicity Principle Inside Framework of Mou Zongsan’s Moral Metaphysics 以牟宗三的道德形上學詮釋榮格的同時性原理 . Martina Greif 力露 Supervisor: Dr. PhD. Pan Chaoyang 潘朝陽 June 2013 .

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(3) Abstract . The thesis’s aim is to present Carl Jung’s synchronicity principle using Mou Zongsan’s 牟宗三 philosophy of moral metaphysics. I argue that Western scientific paradigm is unable to offer an appropriate framework for integration of synchronicity principle, because the scientific paradigm is based on causality, whereas synchronicity principle is based on acausality, which does not follow the deterministic logic of scientific thinking. When Jung studied Chinese classic Yi Jing, he discovered it is based on synchronicity principle, in Chinese known as ganying 感應 or gantong 感通. Jung’s shortcoming was that he did not know Chinese language, therefore he approached Yi Jing only through available translations. In the West Yi Jing was still an unknown mystery waiting to be revealed. Since he was not able to explain synchronicity principle inside scientific framework it will be my task to explain synchronicity concept inside framework of Yi-ology. I will focus on Mou Zongsan’s Yi-ology, because it is based on moral metaphysics, which is similar to Jung’s concept of self-realization. Keywords: Carl Gustav Jung, synchronicity, acausality, Yi Jing, Mou Zongsan, moral metaphysics, Yi-ology, self-realization. . . III .

(4) 摘要本論文旨以牟宗三易學，探討瑞士學者卡爾˙古斯塔夫˙榮格之共時性原理。筆者以為，西方科學典範無法提供適當的框架，將共時性原理納入其中，因科學典範立基因果關係，而共時性原理乃非因果關係，亦不遵循科學思維的既定邏輯。當榮格研究中國古典《易經》的時候，發現它基於共時性原理，在中國稱為感應或感通。榮格不諳中文，故僅能透過譯本認識《易經》。在當時的歐洲，《易經》仍神秘未知。由於榮格未能以科學框架解釋共時性原理，亦無法深入對易學進行討論；相對於榮格的進路，筆者嘗試以易學的視角，詮釋共時性原理。本文中，筆者將專注於牟氏易學，以其道德形上學為進路，對榮格「自我實現」概念，進行更細緻的討論。. 關鍵詞：卡爾˙古斯塔夫˙榮格、共時性原理、非因果關係、《易經》、牟宗三、道德形上學、自我實現. . . IV .

(5) Table of Contents . 1. INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................................. 1 1.1. . RESEARCH QUESTION ................................................................................................................................ 4 . 1.2. . SIGNIFICANCE .............................................................................................................................................. 7 . 1.3. . METHODOLOGY .........................................................................................................................................13 . 1.4. . SHORT HISTORY OF YI JING ...................................................................................................................27 . 1.5. . LITERATURE REVIEW ..............................................................................................................................30 . 2. IN SEARCH FOR HOLISTIC PARADIGM ..................................................................................39 2.1.. CRITIQUE OF MODERN SCIENTIFIC PARADIGM ................................................................................40 . 2.2.. SPIRITUAL REVIVAL OF THE WEST ......................................................................................................47 . 2.3.. JUNG, MODERN SHAMAN .........................................................................................................................52 . 3. SYNCHRONICITY AS PSYCHOPHYSICAL EVENT...................................................................58 3.1.. DEFINITION OF SYNCHRONICITY............................................................................................................59 . 3.2.. WOLFGANG PAULI, JUNG AND PSYCHOID ARCHETYPE .................................................................65 . 4. MANTIC METHOD OF YI JING ........................................................................................................70 4.1.. JUNG’S ENCOUNTER WITH YI JING ..........................................................................................................72 . 4.2.. JUNG’S EXPERIMENT WITH YI JING ........................................................................................................75 . 4.3.. THE NOTION OF SYNCHRONICITY PRINCIPLE IN YI JING .................................................................86 . 5. MOU ZONGSAN’S YI-OLOGY ..........................................................................................................93 5.1.. CONCEPT OF YIJIAN 易簡 ..........................................................................................................................95 . 5.2.. THE CONCEPT OF SHEN 神 .......................................................................................................................97 . 5.3.. CHINESE ONTOLOGY AND COSMOLOGY .............................................................................................98 . 5.4.. COEXISTENCE OF TRANSCENDENTAL AND INNATE ......................................................................102 . 5.5.. DUAL EMPHASIS ON THE HEXAGRAMS OF QIAN 乾 AND KUN 坤............................................107 . 6. CONCLUSION .................................................................................................................................... 113 . . V .

(6) 6.1.. LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE SUGGESTIONS ......................................................................................118 . 7. REFERENCES..................................................................................................................................... 121 . . . . VI .

(7) 1. Introduction With his synchronicity principle Swiss psychologist Carl Gustav Jung (1875-1961) revealed other factors ordering the world of our experiences. These factors are not limited by the space-time continuum or causality as they work in the domain of acausality. Synchronicity events are an everyday experience for most people. For example you are troubled about a friend at a certain moment, and as you remind yourself of calling this friend, at that same moment the phone rings and on the other line is that exact same friend. Because synchronicity events are strange and uncommon, go beyond our view of reality, they are at best brushed aside as coincidences, as most people choose to ignore them or to dismiss them by labeling them as ‘chance’. Jung noted that the word chance is usually used in everyday context to fill in gaps in our knowledge. If we note a strange occurrence, which falls outside the expected, we tend to use the term ‘chance’ to describe it and at the same time to dismiss it. As a psychotherapist Jung had observed that the so-called ‘chance’ often plays a decisive role in a person’s life. A turning point in the healing process of a patient may sometimes be accompanied by external and internal events that ‘arrange’ themselves in a ‘meaningful manner’. Although it occurs frequently, this type of experience belongs to a taboo category and is usually dismissed with ‘you see what you want to see’.. . 1 .

(8) Synchronicity principle, first formally introduced by Carl G. Jung in 1928 in a seminar on dreams and later delivered at the 1951 Eranos Conference 1 , remains difficult to understand both within analytical psychology and beyond. Jung wrote extensively on synchronicity only later on in his life and as a result the concept was never fully developed. Roderick Main2 in his article “Synchronicity and the limits of re-enchantment”3 says there have been many attempts to elucidate and evaluate this concept from the following research frameworks:. natural. science. (von. Franz,. Peat,. Mansfield,. Cambray,. Haule),. parapsychology (Mansfield, Main, Storm, Haule), philosophy (Progoff, Main, Bishop, Lindorff, Gieser), psychotherapy (Bolen, Aziz, Hopcke), psychoanalysis (Faber), religion (Aziz, Mansfield, Main), and contextuality (Main, Bishop, Charet). Nonetheless, its meaning continues to be obscured: “Despite all this effort, the synchronicity principle has so far achieved very little integration within mainstream academic and intellectual fields. It is not that the concept is disproven or discredited - it tends to be too poorly understood and too cursorily evaluated for this - but rather that it has been disregarded.”4. 1 Initiated in 1933 by Olga Froebe-Kapteyn, the original purpose of which was the encounter between Eastern and Western religions, philosophy, and psychology. 2. Dr Roderick Main, PhD, is Director of the Centre for Psychoanalytic Studies, University of Essex, UK. He contributed many extensive works on Jung’s psychology as well as his synchronicity concept. Some of the recent works are: The Rupture of Time: Synchronicity and Jung’s Critique of Modern Western Culture (2004) and Revelations of Chance: Synchronicity as Spiritual Experience (2007). 3. Main, Roderick: “Synchronicity and the limits of re-enchantment”, in International Journal of Jungian Studies, 3:2, 144158. 4 Main, Roderick: “Synchronicity and the limits of re-enchantment”, in International Journal of Jungian Studies, 3:2, 144158; p. 146.. . 2 .

(9) Current natural and humanity studies are not able to grasp the meaning of synchronicity in its wholeness, therefore we should look for its explanation in other cultures, which offer a broader framework for understanding the characteristics of the principle of synchronicity. Jung found it in Chinese thought, concretely in Yi Jing. Wang Xinjian 汪新建 and Yu Rongling 俞容齡 in their article〈榮格與《易經》溝通東西文化的心理學嘗試〉 5 it mentions that Yi Jing allowed Jung to confirm the existence of his synchronicity principle in everyday life. Jung discovered Yi Jing was written according to the principle of synchronicity, which was disregarded and forgotten in western thought under the dominance of scientific paradigm based on causality and the space-time continuum. Jung was unable to develop and integrate synchronicity principle into Western thought, because there was no suitable framework and he himself was also unable to construct a new framework: “…Jung’s presentation of the synchronicity concept was greatly obstructed by the fact that he never developed a theoretical framework that would provide him with the means to discuss his position systematically.”6 Therefore, I will try to offer a new theoretical framework for understanding the synchronicity principle, for which I will have to implement cross-cultural methods. I will explain the principle of synchronicity using the Chinese book of Yi Jing as interpreted by 5. 汪新建，俞容齡：〈榮格與《易經》溝通東西文化的心理學嘗試〉，《南京大學報（社會科學版）》，2006年 1月第1期，頁107－110。 6 Aziz, Robert: C.G. Jung’s Psychology of Religion and Synchronicity. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1990; p. 58.. . 3 .

(10) Chinese Modern Neo-Confucian Mou Zongsan 牟宗三 (1909-1995). In my opinion Main’s above theoretical frameworks offer only limited understanding of Jung’s synchronicity principle as the approach they use is partial, which doesn’t allow us to interpret the synchronicity principle from a holistic perspective, as Jung probably wanted. One might accuse Jung of transferring western concepts into Chinese. After all, he was not a Sinologist, he never lived in China nor knew Chinese. He was in contact with Chinese thought only through translations of classic texts and Richard Wilhelm’s discussions. Young Woon Ko in his doctoral dissertation Synchronicity and Creativity: A Comparison Between C. G. Jung and The Book of Changes on Causality also warns about “etic” points of view of Yi Jing, as understood by Jung, which will be mentioned in Chapter 3. I would like to point out that even though inside conventional terms of professing a particular field Jung is not qualified as an expert on Chinese thought, nonetheless his insight into Chinese thought deserves our attention and the following study will judge whether his conclusions about the synchronicity principle represent a significant aspect of Chinese thoughts or not.. 1.1. Research question The central goal of my research is to offer a new theoretical framework for Jung’s principle of synchronicity using the Chinese book of Yi Jing as interpreted by Mou Zongsan.. . 4 .

(11) As I mentioned in the ‘Introduction’ Western scholars approached the synchronicity principle from many different disciplines, such as religious, psychoanalytical, philosophical, natural sciences, etc. But none of these disciplines seem to give a satisfactory interpretative framework for exposing the fundamental characteristics of the synchronicity principle. The main reason is because the approaches used are partial, each interpreting synchronicity principle from a particular discipline. This situation reminds me of a complex Ptolemaic geocentric system, where spheres of deferents and epycycles were added by the theorists in order to explain the movements of planets around the earth instead of changing the standpoint, as it was later discovered that our galaxy’s movement under the heliocentric system is simple and logical. Therefore, instead of focusing on partial interpretations of natural and humanity studies originating in Western thought, I will follow Jung’s footsteps and consider Chinese thought, which according to Jung is holistic. In interpreting his synchronicity principle it is quite clear that Jung was particularly fond of using the mantic method found in Yi Jing, and so my study of Jung’s synchronicity principle will be approached using the interpretation of Yi Jing by Chinese Modern Neo-Confucian Mou Zongsan. Yi Jing is one of the oldest Chinese classical texts. Missionaries brought it to the West in the 16th century and later it was studied by Sinologists from France, England and Russia. The first translation of Yi Jing was made by James Legge7 (1815-1897) and then by. 7 Legge, James: “The Sacred Books of China, vol. 2 of 6. Part II of the Texts of Confucianism, The Yî King” (in Sacred Books of the East, Volume 16, edited by Max Müller). Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1882.. . 5 .

(12) German Sinologist Richard Wilhelm8 (1873-1930). Jung started experimenting with Yi Jing in 1920 when he first met with Richard Wilhelm. After Wilhelm published his translation in 1924 Jung was so impressed by this mysterious book, in which he discovered the holistic aspect of Chinese thought that he contributed the Foreword to its publication: “I therefore turned my attention first of all to the intuitive technique for grasping the total situation which is so characteristic of China, namely the I Ching or Book of Changes. Unlike the Greek-trained Western mind, the Chinese mind does not aim at grasping details for their own sake, but at the view which sees the detail as part of a whole.”9 Jung’s engagement into Chinese thought resulted in finding a new theoretical framework in which the synchronicity principle was nothing extraordinary but just a vital part of everyday life. Jung was unable to integrate the synchronicity principle into the scientific paradigm of his time, based on causality and the time-space continuum. In Western thought, based on positivism, there existed no theoretical framework, which could take synchronicity principle into account. At the same time knowledge on Chinese thought, which offers a suitable theoretical framework, did not penetrate Western thought enough. Jung was among the very few who recognized Chinese thought as being broader than Western, but because of his lack of knowledge about it Jung was unable to explain the synchronicity principle using the Chinese frameworks. Therefore it will be my task in this. 8. Wilhelm, Richard: I Ging: Das Buch der Wandlung. Düsseldorf: Diederichs, 1956. English translation: Wilhelm, Richard: The I Ching; or Book of Chanegs (translated by Cary F. Baynes). Princeton, N. J.: Princeton University Press, 1977. 9. Jung, Carl G.: Synchronicity: An Acausal Connecting Principle. London: Ark, 1987; p. 49.. . 6 .

(13) cross-cultural study to elucidate the synchronicity principle in the light of Chinese thought, in terms of vital holistic natural cosmology and moral metaphysics.. 1.2. Significance My research is significant from three perspectives: firstly, from a cross-cultural perspective, secondly, from an academic perspective and thirdly from an ecological perspective. The cross-cultural perspective in my research contributes to recognizing similarities between different cultures and at the same time it enriches the understanding towards different cultures as well as one’s own. This particular study faces Western culture, as based on particularistic study of human and nature, and Chinese culture, of which thought is based on the holistic approach towards man and nature. The study is a response to the fact of future global development, which is characterized by clashes between cultures. This fact is described by Samuel P. Huntington is his work The Clash of Civilizations, where he claims that the primary axis of conflict in the future will be along cultural and religious lines. Inside this context Jung’s concept of collective unconscious helps us to recognize the fundamentals similarities between different cultures. Collective unconscious means inherited pathways, which were accumulated through history of experience of humankind, and are then passed on to future generations as part of “collective inheritance”. Jung on the discoveries made on inherited animal instincts and evolution of species assumed that humans through evolution also inherited instincts. If weaver birds consistently produce the same basic form of nest without any instruction in . 7 .

(14) how to do so, then in humans there also consists this kind of “plan”, which leads human through his/her life. Collective unconscious is universal. Its contents and modes of behavior are the same everywhere in all individuals. It is a common psychic substrate of a suprapersonal nature, which is common in every one of us. The contents of collective unconscious are primordial images, so-called archetypes. Archetypes themselves cannot be made conscious; they are manifested through archetypal images. We can find archetypes in mythology, esoteric teachings and fairytales10. For example, the archetype of old wise man is represented by Philemon11 in Western culture, and Laozi in Eastern, or archetype of mother, represented by Maria in the West and in the East by Guanyin Pusa12. Primordial images or archetype images differ through different cultures and through history, which means the symbols they are expressing themselves in are different. What is inherited are the same tendencies hiding behind these symbols. The symbol itself is not as important as what it represent. We need to get behind the surface of symbols and find out what they signify13. Similarly, in current cross-cultural research I will elucidate the meaning of synchronicity principle through theoretical framework of Mou Zongsan’s Yi-ology, which is based on 10. Jung, Carl G.: The Collected Works of C.G. Jung, Volume 9i: The Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1969; p. 4. 11. Jung in his The Red Book (written and illustrated between 1914 and 1930, published in 2009) used the figure of Philemon to represent a guiding spirit. Historically, Philemon orginates from Greek ΦΙΛΗΜΩΝ (philēmōn), which means kindly, affectionate, from φιλέω (phileō), which means I love. Later the name Philemon appears in the New Testament in the Epistle to Philemon. Philemon was known as a saint by many Christian churches along with his wife Apphia. 12. Guanyin Pusa is the bodhisattva found in East Asian Buddhism. Usually portrayed as a female, associated with compassion. Guanyin originates from Sanskrit Avalokitesvara, commonly known in English as the Mercy Goddess or Goddess of Mercy. 13. Progoff, Ira: Jung’s Psychology and its Social Significance. New York: Grove Press, 1953; p. 70-71.. . 8 .

(15) vital holistic natural cosmology and moral metaphysics. In this way we do not only establish the bridge of mutual understanding between two different cultures but we also recognize the same values, which exist between them, and more importantly learn to appreciate these same values. Secondly, the study is significant in the attempt to pursue a holistic paradigm in academic and intellectual circles in order to interpret human and nature in its wholeness. As mentioned by Roderick Main, Jung’s synchronicity principle has not been integrated into the academic and intellectual fields, since it has been disregarded (look the above quote, p. 6). The reason is because the term is poorly understood since sciences of the West are unable to interpret it from a holistic perspective, as Jung already implied with using mantic method of Yi Jing. Therefore we have to look for another theoretical framework, which in this case can be found in Chinese thought offering a holistic world-view. Jung discovered a new world-view through Yi Jing. Chinese thought is relational, and connects human and nature into one unity. Thus it offers a new paradigm for the practice of “life”, which is not reductionist and mechanistic, but holistic and vitalistic. Even in natural science itself (quantum physics), it has been revealed that natural laws of causality are only valid in macro physical quantities. In the realm of microphysics quantities no longer behave in accordance with natural law. Subatomic world acts according to laws of probability and not certainty. The need for holistic paradigm is evident in appearance of complexity theory. The president of Santa Fe Institute in New Mexico, USA, George A. Cowan said:. . 9 .

(16) “The royal road to a Nobel Prize has generally been through the reductionist approach…dissecting the world into the smallest and simplest pieces you can. You look for the solution of some more or less idealized set of problems, somewhat divorced from the real world, and constrained sufficiently so that you can find a solution…And that leads to more and more fragmentation of science. Whereas the real world demands – though I hate the word – a more holistic approach. Everything affects everything else, and you have to understand that whole web of connections…In part because of their computer simulations, and in part because of new mathematical insights, physicists had begun to realize by the early 1980s that a lot of messy, complicated systems could be described by a powerful theory known as “nonlinear dynamics”. And in the process, they had been forced to face up to a disconcerting fact: the whole really can be greater that the sum of its parts. … It was disconcerting for the physicists only because they had spent past 300 years having a love affair with the linear systems – in which the whole is precisely equal to the sum of its parts.”(from Waldrop, M. Mitchell: Complexity: The emerging Science at the Edge of Order and Chaos. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1992, p. 12)14 Overall, this means there is a need for a new paradigm, which can grasp all the aspects of human life and nature. And as Jung suggested, the new paradigm would not eliminate but include the unique and non-repeatable occurrences called ‘chance’: “We have not sufficiently taken into account as yet that we need the laboratory with its incisive restrictions in order to demonstrate the invariable validity of natural law. If we 14. Aziz, Robert: The Syndetic Paradigm. Albany: State University of New York Press, 2007; p. 37.. . . 10 .

(17) leave things to nature, we see a very different picture: every process is partially or totally interfered with by chance, so much so that under natural circumstances a course of events absolutely conforming to specific laws is almost an exception.”15 That does not mean we have to discard the already existing natural law, since as practice shows it is useful in everyday life. What Jung suggests is that the already existing paradigm has to be complemented by incorporating synchronicity principle. With synchronicity principle we take into consideration the irrational, acausal aspect of our everyday life as representing a crucial part for understanding the human nature as well as nature as a whole. In contrast to rational facts, obtained through natural sciences based on sacred Trinity of space, time and causality, the irrational part is as much important since it incorporates the notion of meaning. Even though present zeitgeist is different from Jung’s, which was dominated by onesidedness of statistical truths, loss of tradition and mass man, in my opinion we did not move any farther in elucidating the aspect of irrational and coincidental in our lives. Synchronicity events continue being discarded as ‘coincidental’. This means that we are still caught inside the pigeonholes of natural science and humanity studies, each contributing to a partial understanding of human and nature, and are therefore unable to make a revolutionary step towards a more holistic approach.. 15 Jung, Carl Gustav: Psychology and the East (translated by R.F.C. Hull). Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1976; p. 190.. . . 11 .

(18) Thirdly, the concept of synchronicity is based on idea of unity between man and nature, which concerns present ecological problems. Pan Chaoyang 潘朝陽 in his work 《心靈。空間。環境。》16 discusses the ecological message of Zhou Yi and Yi Zhuan. He warns that the Descartian-Newtonian mechanistic worldview brought ecological crisis, because world was not seen as a spiritual entity, as a nurturing mother, but as a perfect soulless mechanism, ticking like a perfect clock. On the other hand Chinese onto-cosmology is based on environmental ethics, which originates from the unity of man and nature dating back to the period when people settled down and started cultivating the natural environment. On the basis of hardship they faced with cultivating their land, the Chinese recognized the value and wisdom of life seen in the concept of unity of man and nature, which they wrote down in Yi Jing and Confucians in Yi Zhuan. Therefore Yi Jing is not only a divination book, but also carries the message of environmental existentialism and environmental ethics. Nowadays the appreciation for nature (and also human being) is not as high as appreciation for economical growth and success. The pollution in the world is still one of the most significant problems, not to mention the consequences of global warming, which all warn us about the mistreatment of our natural environment. With emphasizing the wisdom of organic, vital connection between nature and man, which was already known to people thousands of years ago, we will be able to appreciate nature as a vital part of our lives, which we have to nurture in order that nature will nurture us in return. 16. 潘朝陽：《心靈。空間。環境。》。臺北：五南圖書出版股份有限公司，2005年，頁415-451.. . . 12 .

(19) Jung’s story about synchronic relationship between man and nature is most inspiring. It is a story about the rainmaker of Kiaochau told by Richard Wilhelm. When Wilhelm was in China there was a great draught where he lived. When none of the local religious prayers and rituals was effective in calling the rain, they decided to call for rainmaker from another province. The rainmaker, “dried up old man”, came and asked for a little quiet house, where he locked himself for three days. On the fourth day there was a great storm with snow. Wilhelm was overwhelmed and asked the rainmaker how he did it, and he replied: “I come from another country where things are in order. Here they are out of order, they are not as they should be by the ordinance of heaven. Therefore the whole country is not in Tao, and I also am not in the natural order of things because I am in a disordered country. So I had to wait three days until I was back in Tao and then naturally the rain came.”17. 1.3. Methodology I my research I will use qualitative methodology, that is intercultural hermeneutic methodology as defined by Jos de Mul18. He defines three different types of intercultural hermeneutics: widening of horizons (Schleiermacher and Dilthey), a fusion of horizons (Heidegger and Gadamer) and a dissemination of horizons (Derrida). I will use the second kind of hermeneutics, that is fusion of horizons or constructive hermeneutics, as defined by Heidegger and Gadamer. In contrast to Dilthey’s monological model of understanding, 17. Jung Carl G.: The Collected Works of C.G. Jung, Volume 14: Mysterium Coniunctionis. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1974; p. 419 (footnote). 18 De Mul, Jos: “Horizons of Hermeneutics: Intercultural Hermeneutics in a Globalizing World”, in Frontiers of Philosophy in China, 2011, 6 (4); 628 – 655.. . . 13 .

(20) Gadamer supports dialogical model and emphasizes the practicality of hermeneutics. It can be understood as finding a common language or a common understanding between two different cultures. In this research I will interpret Jung’s synchronicity principle using the theoretical framework of Mou Zongsan’s Yi-ology. As I mentioned in the beginning, Jung was not able to find a suitable framework in Western culture, which would be able to integrate synchronicity principle. And even in years to come, scholars of Jung’s thought were unable to integrate it into the academic world successfully; it remains on marginal position. Therefore, we have to look broader, which Jung did through studying different cultures, and found the synchronicity at work in Yi Jing. But since Jung’s knowledge about Chinese thought was not satisfactory, he was unable to explain the significance of synchronicity principle using the framework of Chinese thought. This study would like to show that synchronicity principle is not just Jung’s own isolate idea, that was a product of the specific environment, but is actually present in other cultures for thousands of years, therefore is a universal concept. My research consists of four chapters. In the first chapter, named ‘In Search for The Holistic Paradigm’ I will display the historical, cultural context of Jung’s time and Jung’s personal factors in order to understand the circumstances, which contributed to the shaping of synchronicity principle. There are three main works dealing with the context of Jung’s synchronicity principle: Paul Bishop’s Synchronicity and Intellectual Intuition in Kant, Swedenborg, and Jung (2000), F.X. Charet’s Spiritualism and the Foundations of C.G. Jung’s Psychology (1993) and Roderick Main’s The Rupture of Time (2004). In my opinion . . 14 .

(21) Main offers the most extensive study on this topic. Comparing to Main, Bishop and Charet limit themselves only to one perspective of the context of synchronicity principle, that is Bishop’s is philosophical and Charet’s is spiritual. Main uses eight major contexts, which influenced Jung. These were paranormal experience and spiritualism, philosophy, astrology, Yi Jing, analytical psychological theory and practice, psychical research and parapsychology, physics, and history of religions and western esotericism. In the last two chapters he adds social, religious, and science influences on Jung as well. I will consider Main’s eight contexts through my own interpretation of contextual factors, which consist of critique of modern western science and spiritual revival of the West. I will also consider the contextual studies by Peter Homans and Sonu Shamdasani. Although studies by Homans and Shamdasani deal with the context of Jung’s psychology in general, it is nonetheless closely connected to his development of synchronicity principle and offer important information about the background on Jung’s notion of synchronicity. As for Jung’s personal factors I will consider his psychology and synchronicity principle inside the context of Jung’s own “soul searching”. After reading Jung’s work, which is usually labeled as psychological, I perceive Jung and his work as going beyond the existing fields of studies, implementing holistic approach to the understanding of man an nature. Although his theory started developing from the field of psychology, his studies extended beyond it and reached into the fields of religion, physics, paranormal phenomena, philosophy, anthropology etc. His approach to study of man and nature is holistic, therefore. . . 15 .

(22) I perceive him as a kind of shaman of modern era as described by Michael Smith19 in his work Jung and Shamanism in Dialogue (2007). In the second chapter, ‘Synchronicity as Psychophysical Event’, I will introduce Jung’s definition of synchronicity principle (his later definition) and its main characteristics. I have to point out the difference between Jung’s earlier and later definition of synchronicity. Robert Aziz20 in his study of Jung’s psychology C.G. Jung’s Psychology of Religion and Synchronicity mentions that Jung’s position on synchronicity principle moved from “intrapsychical model” to “synchronistic model”. At first Jung claimed that symbols are derived "ultimately" from the archetypal unconscious. But in synchronistic model the archetype is not only an intrapsychic reality, it is viewed as being active in nature as well. Jung's notion of synchronicity does not supersede his individual psychology but extends the archetypal structures of the mind to all of being, which Jung perceived as unitary, a unus mundus, which both suggest the interrelatedness of the individual, through the psychoid factor, with the events of nature as a whole. The inner, archetypal life of the individual as microcosmos participates in these "acausal patternings of events in nature”, which represent 19. C. Michael Smith, Ph.D. is a clinical psychologist, certified Focusing Trainer, and Member of the American Psychological Association, in private practice in Niles and Dowagiac, Michigan. For nearly 25 years he has been seeking to integrate his own shamanic path of the heart with his depth psychological practice. While his formal education in psychology took place at the University of Chicago, the Chicago Theological Seminary, the C.G. Jung Institute of Chicago, and The Focusing Institute of New York, his initiation into the shamanic path began long before with an awakening and the receiving a vision for his life and work in 1969. For the past 9 years he has been in shamanic apprenticeship with the Kichwa Elder and Taita Iachak don Alverto Taxo, from the High Andes of Ecuador. His shamanic experiences also took him deep into the world of Jungian analysis in an effort to understand his own calling and to address his own personal wounds and seek a way to integrate shamanic wisdom with modern depth psychotherapy. 20. Robert Aziz Ph.D. is a psychoanalytical therapist, author and executive consultant within the business sector. He is a Clinical Member of the Ontario Society of Psychotherapists. He is also a full member of the Canadian Psychological Association and the Canadian Psychological Association Section on Psychoanalysis. He is the author of two scholarly books: C.G. Jung’s Psychology of Religion and Synchronicity (1990) and The Syndetic Paradigm: The Untrodden Path Beyond Freud and Jung (2007).. . . 16 .

(23) macrocosmos. Individuation is no longer to be seen as a personalized quest but as a spiritual challenge to an encounter and integration with nature in its entirety. I will therefore focus on Jung’s Synchronicity model, which interprets synchronicity principle as unifying nature and man into one entity. It is important to mention Aziz’s change of perspective on Jung’s psychology in his later work The Syndetic Paradigm: The Untrodden Path Beyond Freud and Jung, where he accuses Jung of employing strictly a closed system of self-regulating psyche, so-called “Jungian Paradigm”. In contrast to “Jungian Paradigm” Aziz offers a new “Syndetic21 Paradigm”, which is defined as an open-system model of a psyche in a self-organizing totality, which takes the psyche a part of the wholeness, that is “nature in its entirety is bound together in a highly complex whole through an on going process of spontaneous selforganization”22. First of all, I do not approve Aziz’s usage of Jungian Paradigm, since Jung was never trapped in a so-called Jungian Paradigm. His thought on psychology kept evolving in his later years. As Richard Tarnas writes: “Jung’s thought is extremely complex, and in the course of his very long intellectually active life his conception of the archetypes went through significant evolution. . . . In his later work . . . and particularly in relation to his study of synchronicity, Jung began to. 21. Syndetic in Greek means bound together.. 22. Aziz, Robert: The Syndetic Paradigm. Albany: State University of New York Press, 2007; p. 19.. . . 17 .

(24) move toward a conception of archetypes as autonomous patterns of meaning that appear to structure and inhere in both psyche and matter.”23 Secondly, Aziz’s later work The Syndetic Paradigm is a complete reverse to his earlier conclusion in C.G. Jung’s Psychology of Religion and Synchronicity, where according to Aziz, Jung with the synchronicity principle acknowledged the interrelatedness of psychic and physical on the way to self-realization: “The major finding concerns Jung’s concept of ‘immediate religious experience’24, which is now to be taken to refer not merely to an encounter with the compensatory contents of the unconscious, but to a direct encounter with the compensatory patterning of events in nature as a whole, both inwardly and outwardly. With the introduction of the synchronicity concept, therefore, Jung’s notion of ‘immediate religious experience’ is dramatically transformed.”25 Moreover in The Syndetic Paradigm Aziz accuses that “no serious attempts were made, either by Jung himself or Jungians, to incorporate that most significant theoretical step into mainstream Jungian psychology”26. Therefore he completely excluded the revolutionary influence the concept of synchronicity had on Jung’s psychology throughout his work and even more, Aziz fails to mention the important fact of close collaboration between Jung and 23. Tarnas, Richard: The Passion of the Western Mind: Understanding the Ideas that Have Shaped Our World View. New York: Harmony Books, 1991, p. 425. 24. “Immediate religious experience” as understood by Jung is not confined inside any religious system, but is of individual nature and derived from the archetypal level of collective unconscious of the psyche (and also nature in its entirety if we take into consideration the synchronicity principle). 25. Aziz (1990), p. 222.. 26. Ibid, p. 50.. . . 18 .

(25) physicist Wolfgang Pauli in searching the point where psychic and physical interact. Aziz in contrast to his earlier work in The Syndetic Paradigm accuses Jung of splitting the inner and outer worlds and focusing only on the inner. He labels this “an impassioned withdrawal into the inner world of the psyche and a Romantic splitting of Reality”: “Largely as a consequence of its radical, inner- world orientation, largely as a consequence of its disconnection from the outer world, largely as a consequence of its archetypal Romanticism, what the Jungian Paradigm remains, in spite of all stated ambitions to the contrary, is merely a vehicle of aesthetic, rather than ethical engagement with unfolding Reality.”27 This is a strange charge to make against Jung, who on the basis of synchronicity principle suggested the common ground of psyche and matter. In my opinion Aziz’s accusation of Jung’s so called withdrawal to the inner world and Aziz’s own emphasis on “Reality” is an overly simplified contrast. Aziz in the above quote charges Jung for not providing a finished and consistent theoretical system. I think Jung should be understood in terms of a courageous explorer. After all, his life work corresponds more to those of the early explorers, discovering vast new regions of the world. Jung devoted his life to the vast unexplored area of the unconscious, developing and revising his understanding as he proceeded. He never claimed to have explored the whole or to have mapped it exhaustively with complete accuracy, and. 27. Ibid, p. 81.. . . 19 .

(26) he was clearly pushing on into new areas and modifying his understanding in his later years with his writing on synchronicity and the unus mundus. Even accusing Jungians not developing Jung’s idea of synchronicity further is not justifiable. For example, one of the most known Jungians, Marie Louise von Franz extended and published a number of works on synchronicity and psyche and matter (1974, 1980, 1992). In addition, as of March, 23, 2013, Amazon lists 906 books with synchronicity in the title or subtitle. Given this, how can it be said that Jung’s idea of synchronicity was not developed further? Throughout the book, Aziz labels Jung’s position solipsistic, archetypal reductionism, pathological subjectivism, and a Romantic attachment to inner worlds: “In the form of its radical inner-world orientation, in the form of its abandonment of selfregulatory dynamics and, not least of all, in the form of its extreme archetypalism, the Jungian Paradigm, in its treatment of both symbol and life, became /…/ inextricably enmeshed in what I would term a Romantic trap.”28 The charges of archetypal reductionism and a Romantic attachment to the inner world are the result of Aziz’s outmoded, positivistic realism. From this perspective Jung uses more contemporary epistemology. Another important detail Aziz fails to mention is Jung’s engagement into study of Yi Jing, which gave Jung a theoretical framework for discussing the synchronicity principle. 28. Aziz (2007), p. 12.. . . 20 .

(27) Although Jung’s knowledge was not satisfactory to discuss the synchronicity principle from the perspective of Chinese thought, I would suggest Aziz to follow Jung’s vision towards unifying world of psyche and physics through theoretical framework of Chinese thought, where Jung through Yi Jing and other classical texts such as The Secret of the Golden Flower, The Great Liberation, The Awakening of Faith, The Tibetan Book of the Dead, found the foundation for holistic paradigm. Returning back to the content of the second chapter, that is Jung’s definition of synchronicity principle, I will extract it first from Jung’s own publications on synchronicity. I will also consider Main’s and Aziz’s observations about synchronicity principle and its main characteristics. Secondly, I will also explain the concept of “psychoid archetype”, which was developed by Jung in collaboration with physicist Wolfgang Pauli in order to scientifically explain the unity of psychic and physical on psychophysical point. In the third chapter, ‘Mantic Method of Yi Jing’, I will focus on Jung’s encounter with Yi Jing. Yi Jing was an important discovery for Jung, because it offered him a method through which he was able to explain his synchronicity principle. That is mantic method. One wonders why Jung did not consider western mantic methods to interpret synchronicity principle at work. He actually did consider Ars Geomantica or the Art of Punctation, which can be found in Robert Fludd’s De arte geomantica. But this method is harder to understand, because its usage was strictly mantic and not philosophical as in Yi Jing, and there are no commentaries like there are in Yi Jing. Another Western mantic method Jung tried is astrology, which in contrast to Ars Geomantica offers commentaries. But his “Astrological Experiment” described in his essay “Synchronicity: An acausal connecting . . 21 .

(28) principle” did not give him the results he hoped for. Therefore, Yi Jing was considered by Jung as a proof for existence of cultural framework, which is able to accept synchronicity in everyday life, because of its holistic world-view. At first I will describe how Jung got into contact with Yi Jing, which was through his engagement into Eastern thought and encounter with Sinologist Richard Wilhelm. Secondly, I will describe his experimenting with Yi Jing, using the method of three coins, and his observations during the experiments. Thirdly, I will also elaborate upon the Young’s critique on Jung and Yi Jing. In his doctoral dissertation Synchronicity and Creativity: A Comparison Between C. G. Jung and The Book of Changes on Causality, Young Woon Ko warns about etic points of view of Yi Jing, as understood by Jung. Last but not the least, I will describe the notion of synchronicity in Yi Jing. Here are relevant the article of Zhang Xian 彰賢29 , where is pointed out that the Chinese principle of ganying 感應 is similar to the Jung’s synchronicity principle. Another important article is written by Yang Rubin 楊儒賓30, where author among other things on the basis of Yi Zhuan, explains the notion of synchronicity, which is present in the act of divination. In the fourth chapter, called “Mou Zongsan’s Yi-ology”, I will discuss the content and main characteristic of Yi Jing as interpreted by Modern Neo-Confucian Mou Zongsan.. 29. 彰賢：〈榮格與《易經》〉，《周易研究》，2003年第2期，頁19－27。. 30. 楊儒賓：〈從氣之感通到貞一之道 ──《易傳》對占卜現象的解釋與轉化）〉，《中國古代思維方式探素》。臺北：正中書局，民國85年11月，135 － 182 。. . . 22 .

(29) According to Zheng Jixiong 鄭吉雄. 31. , 20th century Yi-ology (Yixue 《易》學 ). represents a new approach to interpretation of Yi Jing, which is not based on traditional interpretation of “respecting the old”, but because of influence of the West became more independent and broke with the limitations of tradition. Author describes three different academic approaches to Yi-ology32: traditional, scientific, and study based on thought. The traditional studies and interpretation of Yi Jing followed two schools, School of Meanings and Interpretations (Yili 義理) and School of Images and Numbers (Xiangshu 象數). Representative of this approach is Hang Xinzhai 杭辛齊. The second, scientific approach has to directions of development, one is based on historical facts supported by archeological discoveries and historical reading of texts represented by Wang Guowei 王國維 and his “method of double evidence” (erchong zhengjufa 二重證據法), and the other on interpreting Yi Jing using natural sciences, such as mathematics and physics. In the last academic approach, study based on thought, author points out three different methods of interpretation: derivation method, linking method and integrative method. The representative of the derivation method is Xiong Shili 熊十力 (1885-1968) with his work Evolution of the Cosmos (Qian Kun Yan 《乾坤衍》) where he derives onto-cosmological aspect of Yi Jing. Many considered his work as lacking argumentation and treated it rather 31. In his article Zheng Ji Xiong focuses on 20th century studies and interpretation of Yi Jing which he presented on the Symposium ‘Classics’ Interpretative Tradition in Contemporary East Asia Confucianism’ in year 2000, and was issued in the article under the title “The Periodization and Classification of Twentieth Century Yi Jing Hermeneutics as Observed from Hermeneutical Traditions on the Classics”. 32. 鄭吉雄：〈從經典詮釋傳統論二十世紀《易》詮釋的分期與類型〉，《易圖象與易詮釋》。臺北：臺灣大學出版中心，2004年6月, 13－81；頁 49 – 81。. . . 23 .

(30) as manifestation of the content of Yi Jing. And since many interpretations of Confucian Classics by Xiong Shili do not match with the results obtained from factual analysis of texts, many scholars keep distance from his interpretations of classics. The second, linking method, is represented by Zhu Bokun’s 朱伯崑 work The History of Philosophy of Yi-ology (Yixue Zhexue Shi《易學哲學史》), where he makes a research on the formation and development of Yi-ology of different schools through history, focusing on their thought. The third interpretation method is integrative method, which on the basis of Yi-ology and Chinese thought in general developed new concepts, such as for example Harmony Studies by Zhang Liwen 張立文and the suggestion that Yi Jing’s original thought comes from Daoism by Chen Guying 陳鼓應. Most of the Modern Neo-Confucians emphasized the content of Yi Zhuan. Yi Zhuan is the part of Yi Jing written by Confucians, which extracts the content of the first part of Yi Jing (hexagrams, commentaries to hexagrams and its lines) into a coherent system. Its content is broad and represents a theoretical aspect of Yi Jing. 20th century Modern Neo-Confucian scholars such as Xiong Shili 熊十力 and his students Mou Zongsan 牟宗三, Tang Junyi 唐君毅, Xu Fuguan 徐復觀 offer an onto-cosmological and moral metaphysical interpretation of Yi Jing, mostly focused on Yi Zhuan. For example Pan Chaoyang 潘朝陽33 explains that Xiong Shili, the pioneer of Yi-Zhuanian hermenutics, in his study Evolution of the Cosmos ( 《乾坤衍》) on the example of the hexagrams Qian and Kun introduces the onto 33. 潘朝陽：〈從乾坤到熊十力的存在空間〉，《國文學報》。臺北：國立臺灣師範大學國文學系，第51期， 2012年6月，頁109 － 146 。. . . 24 .

(31) cosmological nature of Yi Jing. Xiong Shili’s approach unfolds the holistic-vitalistic character of Confucian Philosophy, which perceives cosmos and all the things as one organic, interrelated unity, which is in constant growth, caused by life spirit, which is manifested through humanness (renxin 仁心). In my study I will use the interpretation of Yi Jing by Mou Zongsan who not only accomplished to derive onto-cosmological aspect from Yi Jing, but most importantly its moral metaphysics. Moral metaphysics is the biggest contribution from Mou Zongsan to Chinese culture, moreover it also reflects the crisis of moral values in the West. 「道德的形上學的建構是牟宗三的一大貢獻，它不僅顯示出儒學在現代社會仍具有的價值，而且亦顯示出面對西方形而上學危機所具有的“救援“價值。」34 The construct of moral metaphysics is Mou Zongsan’s major contribution. His moral metaphysics not only shows that Confucianism still has its value in modern society, but facing the crisis of Western metaphysics, also shows that Confucianism has the value of a rescuer. Mou Zongsan’s studies on Yi Jing are found in his two principal works: 《周易的自然哲學與道德涵義》and《周易哲學演講錄》. Studies on Yi Jing are also found in chapters of the following books: 《才性與玄理》、《蕺山全書選錄》、《中國哲學的特質》、《心體與性體 (一，二，三)》、《從陸象山到劉蕺山》、《中國哲學十九講》、 34. 聶民玉，胡素傑：〈可以超過但不可繞過的牟宗三哲學〉，《燕山大學學報》，第11卷1期，2010年3月，頁 27－29。. . . 25 .

(32) 《四因說演講錄》. Among the chapters, there are those interpreting other philosopher’s Yi-ology, and those who are a direct interpretation of Yi Jing. I will only focus on the ones, which are concerned with direct interpretation of Yi Jing. These are: chapter eight in《中國哲學的特質》, chapter four and six in 《中國哲學十九講》, and chapter one, three and four in《四因說演講錄》35. Jiang Yuzhi 蔣玉智 in his article on Yi-ology of Mou Zongsan36 makes a difference between the first early period and second period of Mou Zongsan’s Yi-ology. Mou Zongsan in his early years in 1935 published his work 《從周易方面研究中國之元學及道德哲學》 37 where he interprets Yi Jing from perspective of natural philosophy, which approaches the interpretation of Yi Jing following the School of Images and Numbers (xiangshu 象數) and its yin 陰 and yang 陽 theory of qihua 氣化 (transformation of qi). Mou Zongsan himself was not very satisfied with his early work, since it only focused on natural philosophy38. In the second period when Mou Zongsan worked in Hong Kong, the most significant work of his Yi-ology, and which is also significant for my study is the 《周易哲學演講錄》, which was recorded and written by Mou Zongsan’s student and later professor Hu 35. 賴貴三：〈省思唐君毅、牟宗三、徐復觀《易》學的時代意義與價值〉，李瑞全、楊祖漢主編：《中國文化與世界──中國文化宣言五十週年紀念論文集》。桃園中壢：中央大學儒學研究中心，2009年9月，263-297；頁269271. 36. 蔣玉智：〈從自然主義道德論到道德形而上學〉，《福建論壇。人文社會科學版》2010年第6期, 頁72-75。. 37. In 1988 in Taiwan it was published under the title 《周易的自然哲學與道德含義》.. 38. 賴貴三（2009），頁280。. . . 26 .

(33) Xuekun 盧雪崑. Professor Lai Guisan 賴貴三 and Zhang Jianjie 張健捷 claim39 that this work is most significant in the analysis and interpretation of Yi Jing, where Mou Zongsan following the School of Meanings and Interpretations (yili 義理), on the basis of Yi Zhuan exposes the aspect of moral metaphysics in Yi Jing. Mou Zongsan considered the interpretation of Yi Jing in the light of moral metaphysics as “going upwards”: 「就《易經》之卦爻象數而講成自然哲學是往下講，／。。。／但就作為孔門義理的《易傳》而講儒家的道德形上學，則是往上講。。。」. 40. In Yi Jing, the natural philosophy derived from hexagrams and lines as interpreted through School of Images and Numbers, is “going downward”,/…/ but Yi Zhuan, made by Confucian School of Meanings and Interpretations, talks about Confucian moral metaphysics, which is “going upwards”…. 1.4. Short History of Yi Jing Yi Jing is an ancient Chinese text, one of the Five Classics of Confucianism. It consists of two parts. The first part was written in the period from Eastern and Western Zhou (c. 1046 BC–256 BC) till Spring and Autumn period (c. 771 - 476 BC) by King Wen. It consists of 64 Hexagrams, Judgment41 (commentary on the Hexagram) and The Lines (commentaries on each of the six lines of which one Hexagram is made). It was used for 39. 賴貴三（2009）, 頁283。，張健捷：〈乾坤並建－超越內在（牟宗三後期易學思想研究）〉，《周易研究》，2005年第5期，47－54，頁48。 40. 賴貴三（2009），頁 280。. 41. For terminology of Yi Jing, I will use the English translation from Richard Wilhelm’s translation of Yi Jing.. . . 27 .

(34) divination42. The second part of Yi Jing is called Yi Zhuan and it was written in the period of Warring States (475 BC-221 BC). On the basis of textual analysis and the thought expressed in Yi Zhuan its authorship is mostly assigned to Confucius and his students and in some parts to Daoists. Considering the content of Yi Zhuan, it is the interpretation of the first, divination part, and consists of ten parts. Because it consists of Ten Parts, it is also known by name Ten Wings (Shi Yi十翼). The ten parts consist of: Commentary on the Decision (1st and 2nd part) (Tuan Zhuan 彖傳（上下)), The Image (1st and 2nd part) (Xiang Zhuan 象傳（上下） ), Commentary on the Appended Judgments or Great Commentary (1st and 2nd part) (Xi Ci Zhuan 繫辭傳（上下）or Da Zhuan 大傳), Commentary of the Words of the Text (Wen Yan Zhuan 文言傳), Discussion of the Trigrams (Shuo Gua Zhuan 說卦傳), The Sequence of the Hexagrams (Xu Gua Zhuan 序卦傳), and Miscellaneous Notes on the Hexagram (Za Gua Zhuan 雜卦傳). Gao Huaimin 高懷民 divided the history of thought in Yi Jing into following three periods: natural philosophy, spiritualism and moral metaphysics. The natural philosophy period is the earliest and is represented by legendary Fuxi. According to mythological texts Fuxi was born in 4700 BC and is supposed to settle near river Huai (淮河) and mountain Funiu (伏牛山) on the plains of South West of Henan province and taught people domestication of animals, marriage, mathematics, twelve earthly branches, etc. On the basis of observing the 42. It is important to mention that before Yi Jing, there already existed two divination books, co called Lian Shan 連山 and Guizang 歸藏, which also consist of 64 hexagrams, but in contrast to Yi Jing, which starts with hexagram Qian, Guizang started with hexagram Kun, and Lianshan with hexagram Liang, which is supposed to reflect the matriarchal system of society.. . . 28 .

(35) nature and its changes Fuxi wrote down the Eight Trigrams, which consist of broken and full lines. The Eight Trigrams are: sky (qian 乾), earth (kun 坤), thunder (zhen 震), mountain (gen 艮), water (kan 坎), fire (li 離), lake (dui 兌), wind (xun 巽). The Eight Trigrams were taken from the nature, as we can see by their names.43 The second, so-called period of spiritualism, started in the period from Eastern and Western Zhou (c. 1046 BC–256 BC) till Spring and Autumn period (c. 771 - 476 BC). King Wen while imprisoned for several years in Youli 羑里 in year 1144 BC, studied Fuxi’s Eight Trigrams and created 64 hexagrams and added his own commentaries, that is Judgment (guaci 卦辭) and The Lines (yaoci 爻辭). King Wen also added a new divination method using yarrow stalks,44 since cow became used for working on the field. King Wen used hexagrams to explain human affairs and governance of the kingdom45. Confucius and his students represent the third period, that is period of moral metaphysics. Confucius started studying Yi Jing when he was fifty years old and according to studies, Yi Zhuan was written by Confucius and his students. Yi Zhuan is the extension and interpretation of the divination part of Yi Jing. The first part is used for divination and from it we obtain the answer of good and bad fortune. The second part draws the wisdom. 43. 高懷民：《先秦易學史》。台北市 : 東吳大學中國學術著作獎助委員會, 民國64年，頁 52-78。. 44 Practice of divination already existed in Shang dynast, with the use of tortoise shell and cow’s bones, where they interpreted the answer from the cracks obtained trough making holes into the tortoise shell and burning it above the fire, so it cracked, it was signified by character “bu” 卜. “Bu” means crack. ( 高懷民(民國64年)，頁98). 45. 高懷民 (民國64年)，頁90－92。. . . 29 .

(36) from the first part and displays a coherent system and introduces the main concepts of Yi Jing, such as vital holistic natural cosmology and moral metaphysics. As for interpretation of Yi Jing’s thought, there are two kinds of schools: School of Images and Numbers (Xiangshu 象數) and School of Meanings and Interpretations (Yili 義理). School of Images and Numbers is also called natural philosophy because its content is in the domain of qihua 氣化 which encompasses yin yang theory and theory of five elements. School of Meanings and Interpretations is based on School of Numbers and Interpretations and extends the interpretation of Yi Jing from the point of view of morality, which encourages the inner moral cultivation.. 1.5. Literature Review In the first chapter I will use the works of scholars, which already made studies on the contextual background of Jung’s synchronicity principle and Jung’s own critique of modernity. Significant scholars in studying the contextual background are Roderick Main, Peter Homans, Sonu Shamdasani, J.J. Clarke, and Michael Smith. Roderick Main’s Rupture of Time (Synchronicity and Jung’s Critique of Modern Western Culture) exposes that theory of synchronicity radically challenged the entrenched assumptions of mainstream modern culture in the West. It aims to clarify what Jung really meant by synchronicity, why the idea was so important to him and how it informed his thinking about modern western culture. Book examines the wide range of personal,. . . 30 .

(37) intellectual and social contexts of Jung's thinking on synchronicity and how Jung himself applied the theory of synchronicity within his critique of science, religion, and society. Peter Homans in Jung in Context (Modernity and the Making of a Psychology) describes social, personal, religious, and cultural context of Jung’s system of psychology and indentifies the central role of depth psychology in the culture of modernity. In Sonu Shamdasani’s book Jung and the Making of Modern Psychology (The Dream of a Science) we can find a comprehensive study of the formation of Jung’s psychology and a new account of the rise of modern psychology and psychotherapy. It reconstructs the reception of Jung’s work in the human sciences, and its impact on the social and intellectual history of the twentieth century. J.J. Clarke wrote a significant work Jung and Eastern Thought where he discusses Jung’s dialogues with the philosophical ideas of the East, from Buddhism, Daoism, to Indian Yoga, and his writings on Yi Jing, The Tibetan Book of The Dead and various essays on Zen, Eastern meditation, and the symbolism of mandala. Michael Smith in his work Jung and Shamanism in Dialogue makes a comparison between Jung and shaman and comes to a conclusion that Jung’s psychology is very similar to shamanistic practices. Author describes the main characteristics of a shaman from shamanic initiation, dismemberments, disassociation, grief, despair, and soul loss, the healing power of ritual, ecstasy and other altered states. The book also explores many rich topics including the role of talismans and amulets, the various levels of the collective. . . 31 .

(38) unconscious, the archetypal and imaginable perspectives on such phenomena, and implications for psychotherapeutic practice today. Considering Jung’s own critique of modernity significant essays are “New Paths in Psychology”, “The Spiritual Problem of Modern Man”, “Religion as the Counterbalance to Mass-Mindedness”, and “Psychology and Religion”. In “New Paths is Psychology” Jung reveals the shortcomings of scientific paradigm, which is unable to explain the actions of unconscious. He suggests new methodology in the field of psychology, which would be able to explain psyche from holistic perspective. In “Spiritual Problem of Modern Man” Jung exposes the problem of modern man, who is overly rationalistic and extroverted, which causes a split of personality. The personality that is emphasized is the one he/she shows to external world, while the inner personality is neglected, which causes pathological inclinations. In essays “Religion and the Counterbalance to Mass-Mindedness” and “Psychology and Religion” is a critique of Christian religion. Jung accuses religion lost its true meaning and became institutionalized to serve the political and social needs, but not the needs of individual. In religion Jung emphasizes the religious experience, which should find expression in one’s psyche as a numinous experience that would contribute to the spiritual growth of an individual. In the second chapter the significant works are those of Carl Jung, “Synchronicity: An acausal connecting principle” (1952), his lecture “On Synchronicity” (1951), and “On the Nature of the Psyche”. The first one was published in a volume entitled The Interpretation of Nature and the Psyche alongside an essay on Johannes Kepler by Wolfgang Pauli. The second was presented at Eranos conferences in 1951. In “Synchronicity: An acausal . . 32 .