This chapter reviews the relevant literature for developing the framework and selecting variables for this study. First, the literature review on cultural intelligence (CQ), job satisfaction and political skill is presented. Then, we review the relationships among variables and discuss the moderating effect of political skill on the relationship between CQ and job satisfaction.
Expatriates in Taiwan
Interactions across national borders have pervaded the daily activities of companies worldwide. According to Ministry of Labor data in 2015, there were 586,273 foreign workers in Taiwan; 29,000 were white-collar workers, and most of them worked as engineers, managers and teachers. A survey conducted by National Statistics, R.O.C. in 2015, also revealed that there were 4,900 white-collar workers working full-time teaching courses on foreign languages at short-term classes registered for supplementary schooling and 2,200 of the white-collar workers were regular school teachers. The globalization of the business world has not only increased the number of expatriate managers around the world, but also resulted in an increasing struggle with challenges companies face, such as control, coordination and knowledge transference across units (Holopainen & Björkman, 2005).
Therefore, recruiting employees to work outside of their home country has become increasingly important. As a result, 2,300 foreign managers are working in multinational corporations in Taiwan. Furthermore, 1,700 expatriates are engaged in religious, artistic and show business work. However, the specialized or technical work is the major group in Taiwan. Approximately, 16,000 of white-collar workers are engaged in technical work. The
largest nationalities of white-collars workers are Japanese and American. For the location of foreign white-collar workers, most of them are distributed in Taipei: 12,000 white-collar workers are located in Taipei City, 2,800 white-collar workers work in New Taipei City, and 2,500 white-collar workers work in Taichung City.
Cultural Intelligence
In the “real world” many types of intelligence focus on practical fields, such as social intelligence, emotional intelligence and practical intelligence. These three intelligences are recognized as having an impact on specific content belonging to different practical situations (Sternberg & Detterman, 1986). Globalization offers a great opportunity for people to interact with people from different nations (Farh et al., 2010). Earley and Ang (2003), who proposed the concept of cultural intelligence, stated that CQ is very practical for individuals facing the reality of globalization. Many previous researchers showed that CQ plays an important role in ranking an expatriate’s intelligence in accommodating to a foreign culture (Ang et al., 2007). CQ helps people to understand other cultures and it describes the difference between individuals during the time they interact with people from different cultures. CQ is recognized as a distinctive variable that can cultivate people’s intercultural effectiveness (Ang & Van Dyne, 2008; Earley & Ang, 2003).
CQ has many dimensions comprising components which differ but are interrelated (Ang et al., 2010). The four dimensions are cognitive CQ, meta-cognitive CQ, motivational CQ and behavioral CQ (Earley & Ang, 2003). Meta-cognitive CQ, cognitive CQ, and motivational CQ are called mental capabilities, skills responsible for people’s intrinsic condition. Conversely, behavioral CQ controls people’s actions and extrinsic reaction (Ang et
al., 2007). Some researches stated that CQ’s four components enhance management efficiency in diverse cultural environments (Chen, Lin, & Sawangpattanakul, 2011).
Cognitive intelligence means learning and understanding knowledge of the different cultures, including economic, legal and knowledge structures. Those with high cognitive intelligence grasp different kinds of cultural contents, and understand their similarities and dissimilarities.
As a result, they are more likely to obtain accurate interpretations of cultural interactions.
Meta-cognitive intelligence refers to the use of personal observation and interaction to properly understand different cultural knowledge; meta-cognitive intelligence also emphasizes higher order cognitive processes. They are purposely aware, in advance, of others’
cultural preferences; therefore those with high meta-cognitive intelligence can adjust their mental conditions during and after intercultural reactions. Motivational intelligence is related to the individual’s desire to adapt to an unfamiliar cultural environment and enjoy interacting with people from different cultural backgrounds. Individuals with high motivational intelligence have the sustainable energy to face some critical tasks or specific problems.
Behavioral intelligence signifies individuals’ ability to use verbal or non-verbal language, such as words, tones, and facial expressions (Ng, Dyne, & Ang, 2009; Kim et al., 2008), in appropriate places when interacting with people from different cultures. The four aspects of CQ are qualitatively different and complement each other, so that their functions can be used to effectively manage situations in culturally diverse settings (Earley & Ang, 2003).
Job Satisfaction
Obtaining job satisfaction on their own is very important to most of people (Bücker, Furrer, Poutsma, & Buyens, 2014). The definition of job satisfaction changes, based on
different research purposes (Johnston, 1997). Job satisfaction is characterized as the general mentality and positive state reflecting a full of feeling reaction or response of a person towards his or her work experience (Locke, 1976; Judge & Hurst, 2008).
Herzberg (1972) proposed the motivation-hygiene theory in regard to job satisfaction.
The most popular conceptualization of job satisfaction is also called intrinsic-extrinsic theory (Weiss, Dawis, & England, 1967). Intrinsic satisfaction is when workers consider only the kind of work they do, i.e. the tasks that make up their job. Extrinsic satisfaction is when workers consider the conditions of work, such as their pay, coworkers and supervisor (Downes, Thomas, & McLarney, 2000). These two types of satisfaction differ, and also help us to look at jobs from both points of view.
Cultural Intelligence and Job Satisfaction
As implied by these definitions, job satisfaction becomes very important in relation to personal outcome. Some researches state that job satisfaction is positively related to performance (Tett & Meyer, 1993). In expatriates’ perspectives, their job satisfaction depends on whether they can adjust themselves to an overseas environment, such as job requirements and interpersonal associations with employees or customers in foreign countries (Shaffer & Harrison, 1998). Chen et al. (2011) recommend that CQ may be connected with expatriates’ satisfaction, i.e. if they experience culture shock or feel comfortable. People who experience greater job satisfaction become more positive and productive workers. It is very important for employees who work in foreign countries to avoid negative results and acquire job satisfaction (Bücker et al., 2014).
Many previous studies state that CQ plays an important role in measuring individual intelligence in terms of adapting to a new culture (Ang & Van Dyne, 2008; Earley & Ang, 2003). Weiss et al. (1967) state that job satisfaction is a key indicator in observing individuals in a company, whether or not they accommodate themselves to a new working environment;
they may use their adjustment ability to overcome the challenges of this situation. CQ is partially determined by an expatriate’s self-concept, which expands the chances and inspiration of adaption and appropriate behavior in cross-cultural context settings (Earley &
Ang, 2003). Moreover, individuals with self-concept are more willing to improve their work attitudes, such as job satisfaction (Erez & Judge, 2001); Bonache (2005) indicates that this is also a very important phenomenon, especially for people who have jobs in international business. Thomas et al. (2008) proposed that through continuous learning and interactions in social situations, individuals could enhance their level of CQ. Furthermore, those with high CQ may be more fulfilled and satisfied by proactively interactions in cross-cultural behavior.
Thus, by understanding and grasping different international environments, one may acquire higher job satisfaction (Best, Stapleton, & Downey, 2005). Livermore (2011) also explained that when individuals with high CQ face culturally diverse circumstances, CQ helps them to easily solve problems that arise; they feel less fatigue because they acquire the higher personal satisfaction. Furthermore, people with higher personal satisfaction will motivate themselves to work harder and feel more energetic while doing their job.
Leaders should also motivate employees so that they will gain satisfaction (Northouse, 2007). For instance, in international project teams, if the team leader whose leadership style is transformational, team members will enjoy positive team performance, work adjustment,
and job satisfaction (Gundersen, Helessoy, & Raeder, 2012). Sahin (2011) indicates that leaders with high behavioral and motivational CQ will cause their employees to experience greater satisfaction, and will also enhance their organizational citizenship behavior. When it comes to the organizational perspective, “unhappy employees” or those dissatisfied with their job,will be reluctant to devote extra effort to their organization. In other words, employees may opt to exit the company (Ng, Sorensen, & Yim, 2009). Thus, it is very important for expatriates to possess CQ so that they will have satisfaction and motivation to stay in the company.
According to the samples of 225 Chinese managers who worked for foreign multinational enterprises in China, the results showed that CQ was positively related to job satisfaction. CQ helps individuals to grasp complex intercultural situations and to understand cultural differences (Bücker et al., 2014). In other words, “Those with higher CQ capabilities are more likely to feel adjusted in situations characterized by cultural diversity” (Van Dyne, Ang, & Nielsen, 2007, p. 347). Finally, CQ will help people to increase their level of control in multicultural interactions, and they can expect to enhance their job satisfaction (Bücker et al., 2014). Barakat, Lorenz, Ramsey, & Cretoiu(2015) collected samples from 332 global managers who work in multinational corporations in Brazil. They showed that job satisfaction is a highly possible outcome variable of CQ. Moreover, job satisfaction might mediate the relationship between CQ and job performance. CQ cultivates people to be more motivated, goal oriented and to possess the relevant knowledge to face obstacles, thereby enriching their job satisfaction. Accordingly, expatriates with high CQ tend to develop positive attitudes during their work, resulting in job satisfaction.
Yesil (2013) examined 200 managers who work in the textile industry. The result showed that CQ (Meta-cognitive CQ, Motivation CQ, Behavior CQ, but not cognitive CQ) was positively associated with job satisfaction. CQ helps managers to easily manage cross-cultural interactions like communication and cross-cultural teamwork, thereby increasing job satisfaction. Based on the sample of 26 expatriate teachers in a private American International School, the results showed that teachers who have high CQ, are more satisfied with their job; high CQ facilitates their smooth interactions with colleagues, helps them attain the lifestyle they desire in different cultures and enables the formation of concrete social and community connections (Sims, 2011). Livermore (2011) also demonstrated that teachers who have high CQ facing students from different nations and cultural contexts, know how to use relevant ways to teach and have flexible thinking on feedback strategies.
Consequently, CQ would enhance expatriates’ cross-cultural interaction abilities, such as collaboration, communication and problem solving, thereby increasing their job satisfaction.
Based on the above discussion, the following hypothesis is offered.
Hypothesis 1. CQ positively relates to job satisfaction.
Political Skill
Political skill was defined as “the ability to effectively understand others at work, and to use such knowledge to influence others to act in ways that enhance one’s personal and/or organizational objectives” (Ahearn et al., 2004, p.315). According to Pfeffer (1981), it is very important for people in organizations to have political skill so that they may acquire success.
Mintzberg (1983) stated that political skill is an exercise through persuasion, manipulation
and negotiation to achieve goals or complete tasks. Mintzberg (1985) identified that political skill can enhance work efficiency; to survive in an organization, people need to build the capability to influence, convince and control others. Social influence theory explains that people in an organization are eager to construct and maintain useful or meaningful social relationships (Cialdini & Goldstein, 2004). Individuals who have political skill will have social competencies as well. This skill will help them to influence others in social interactions during work; moreover, they will use this ability to achieve their personal goals or organizational goals (Blickle et al., 2012). Todd, Harris, Harris, & Wheeler (2009) also indicate that individuals who have the political skill have the ability to understand organizational requirements and utilize their social presentation in a proper way to influence others’ decision-making. Cogliser & Schriesheim (2000) and Dienesch & Liden (1986) propose that employees who have high-quality relationships acquire more support from their supervisors. Ferris et al. (2007) also find that political skills lead colleagues to believe them;
thus, they will accumulate support from different people. Political skills help people understand what performance criteria are required, and whether this performance will make supervisors notice them; thus, they will acquire their desired rewards (Brouer, Harris, &
Kacmar, 2011).
The Moderating Role of Political Skill
Crowne (2009) believes that intelligence is an interesting term and that researchers still need to continue investigating it. Intelligence can be examined in different fields, such as CQ.
Gottfredson (2002) recognized intelligence as a general mental ability, which can be defined as the capability to solve and integrate complexity. Peterson (2011) stated that CQ “is the
ability to engage in a set of behaviors that uses skills (i.e. language or interpersonal skills) and qualities (e.g. tolerance for ambiguity, flexibility) that are tuned appropriately to the culture-based values and attitudes of the people with whom one interacts” (p.89). Ang, Van Dyne, & Koh (2006) also believe that Meta-cognition CQ and Cognitive CQ are in the same dimension, mental intelligence. All together for this viable interaction to happen, people must perceive cultural signs, acquire cultural learning, comprehend the cultural ramifications of their connections and act adequately in different culture contexts (Crowne, 2009).
Furthermore, people with political skills are always trying to put themselves into other people’s shoes and know where to exert their energy, to sense what is conceivable, and to
support organizations (Mintzberg, 1983). Research demonstrates that managerial intelligence includes three levels of intelligence: analytical, practical and creative. Political skill belongs to practical intelligence. The practical level is more important than the analytical level because practical intelligence describes the conception of tacit knowledge, which can only be cultivated through experience (Perrewé, Ferris, Frink, & Anthony, 2000).
Many studies suggest that political skill by measured by the index called the political skill inventory; the four components are interpersonal influence; networking ability; social astuteness and apparent sincerity (Ferris et al., 2005). First of all, individuals who have interpersonal influence are adept at persuading people, and they will use their unique personal style to influence people around them. Secondly, people with a high level of networking ability easily create relationships with others; moreover, they tend to preserve their friendships and make them more concrete and collative. Third, individuals with good social astuteness have a strong ability to observe different people and change their reactions
or even the social environment, they can still adapt their social style to suit appropriate situations. Last but not least, for individuals with sincerity, their reactions or motives do not lead people to feel they are selfish, but rather sincere and warm. Apparent sincerity is a critical indicator whether or not a requirement will be successfully handled because it emphasizes perceived intentions (i.e. as assessed by the target of influence) of the exhibited behavior (i.e. by the actor) (Ferris et al., 2005).
Individuals with social astuteness may find that it quickly helps them in diverse social settings. Furthermore, people with meta-cognitive intelligence may discover that it helps them change cultural settings. If people can simultaneously change their social and cultural setting, they must be successful in their jobs. Ferris et al. (2002) and Lee & Sukoco (2010) stated that CQ and political skill would increase job performance; in other words, both of these have the ability to adjust people’s behavior and enhance performance. People need to have the ability to communicate with others, so that they can stir their positive imagination.
Therefore, behavioral intelligence gives people the competency to communicate with organizational members, sincerity helping them to improve by being honest and forthright.
Munyon, Summers, Thompson, & Ferris (2015) conclude that political skill should positively predict job satisfaction. Ferris et al. (2008) and Todd et al. (2009) also agree that political skill is positively related to job satisfaction. Locke (1970) stated that political skill reflects the evaluation of job satisfaction. Harris, Harris, & Brouer, (2009) also shows that people with low political skill will also have low job satisfaction. Individuals with political skilled realize that work is a platform for them to achieve their personal goals (Ferris et al.,
2005; 2007). For this reason, political skill can serve as a facilitator to effectively acquire self-worth, enabling individuals to receive job satisfaction. Pierce, Gardner, Cummings, &
Dunham (1989) also posited that if organizations can make individuals feel confident about their self-worth and competence, the employees will be motivated to perform well at work.
These behaviors enhance employees’ accomplishments and their intrinsic job satisfaction.
Gallagher and Laird (2008) propose that individuals with high political skill might have an ability to handle workplace stressors very well, such as political decision-making, thus increasing their job satisfaction.
The social cognitive theory explains that reciprocal causation exists (Bandura, 1986) among environment, behavior and personal factors. Evaluating behavioral change depends on factors such as environment, people and behavior. Researchers also show that individuals’
efficacy and ability to deal with difficult issues will determine their individual outcomes (Wood & Bandura, 1989), which, in our research, is job satisfaction. Individuals with high political skill are more aware of their environment, so they will implement high self-monitoring skills (Ferris et al., 2005). Furthermore, they will change their attitudes and behaviors more effectively to adapt to changing environments. Accordingly, the following discussion, which is grounded in Bandura’s social cognitive theory, brings together the
previously stated literature, with CQ being the environment, political skill being the individual-difference factor and job satisfaction being the outcome. Above all, people with political skill may express their point of view in the appropriate places and even relevant times because they are good at observing and understanding their supervisors mood; this will lead them more easily to satisfaction (Harris et al., 2009).
Perrewé et al. (2004) state that political skill gives people an understanding of others and the belief “that they can control the processes and outcomes of interactions with others” (p.
143). Furthermore, individuals with high political skill can adjust their interactions with managers to achieve their purpose or acquire what they want (Perrewé et al. 2004). This sense of control comes in part from having built social networks in which relationships are characterized by confidence, trust and sincerity. They are good at observing and use their communication skill to deliver messages to their supervisors such as their purpose or what they want; therefore, they might have a great opportunity to acquire job satisfaction (Harris et al., 2009). Individuals who could combine their high-quality relationship and high political skill may receive high job satisfaction. Above all, we can assume that political skill is related to job satisfaction. We offer individuals’ political skill as an example of this kind of proficiency, and expect political skill to moderate the relationship between CQ and job satisfaction.
Hypothesis 2. Political skill moderates the positive relationship between CQ and job satisfaction. Specifically, the higher the political skill, the stronger the effect of CQ on job satisfaction.