文化智商與工作滿意度的關係:外派人員政治技巧當作調節變項

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(1)The Relationship Between Cultural Intelligence and Job Satisfaction: Expatriate’s Political Skill as a Moderator. by. Yuan-Shiuan Hsu. A Thesis Submitted to the Graduate Faculty in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of MASTER OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION. Major: International Human Resource Development. Advisor: Yi-Chun Lin, Ph.D.. National Taiwan Normal University Taipei, Taiwan July 2016.

(2) ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Writing this thesis has had a big impact on me. I would like to reflect on the people who have supported and helped me so much throughout this period. Firstly, I would like to express my gratitude to my advisor Prof. Yi-Chun Jane Lin for her continuous support, remarkable patience, and incredible openness. With her guidance, I could have overcome all the difficulties during my study period. She is the best advisor who I could meet for this thesis study. His guidance helped me in all the time of research and writing of this thesis. I could not have imagined having a better advisor and mentor for my master’s study. Besides my advisor, I would like to thank the rest of my thesis committee: Prof. Shin-Yih Angela Chen, and Prof. Wei-Wen Vera Cheng for their encouragement insightful comments, and hard questions. My sincerely thanks also goes to Mr. Lin, and Ms. Lee. They always provided me with practical insights about foreign workers in Taiwan. Without their support and accompany to collect data, this study would not be impossible to be conducted. I would also like to thank my parents for their wise counsel and sympathetic ear. You are always there for me. Finally, there are my friends. We were not only able to support each other by deliberating over our problems and findings, but also happily by talking about things other than just our papers.. I.

(3) ABSTRACT Globalization encourages individuals across the nation to find a job outside the country. It offers a big opportunity for people in enterprises to interact with foreign workers. Expatriates require cultural intelligence (CQ) to work in a cross-cultural organization, and also need political skills to support them in building networks and acquiring assistance, so that they can adjust very well to their life overseas. The aim of this paper was to explore the impact of CQ on job satisfaction among expatriates. This study also sought to explore the moderating effect of political skill on the relationship between CQ and job satisfaction. The target population of the study is expatriates working in Taiwan. The expatriates should have worked in Taiwan for at least three months as white-collar workers (e.g. teacher, lawyer, engineer, managers, etc.). Data were collected from 302 expatriates in Taiwan by using paper-based questionnaires and online questionnaires. The results indicated that cultural intelligence is positively associated with job satisfaction. However, this study also showed that expatriates with higher levels of political skill and cultural intelligence had the lowest levels of job satisfaction. On the contrary, expatriates with higher levels of cultural intelligence but lower levels of political skill tended to have the highest levels of job satisfaction. Keywords: Cultural intelligence, political skill, job satisfaction. II.

(4) TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENT .................................................................... I ABSTRACT ......................................................................................... II TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................... III LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................V LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................ VI CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION ....................................................... 1. Background of the Study ....................................................................................................... 1 Problem Statement ................................................................................................................. 3 Study Purpose ........................................................................................................................ 4 Research Questions ................................................................................................................ 5 Definition of Key Terms ........................................................................................................ 5. CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................... 7 Expatriates in Taiwan ............................................................................................................ 7 Cultural Intelligence............................................................................................................... 8 Job Satisfaction ...................................................................................................................... 9 Cultural Intelligence and Job Satisfaction ........................................................................... 10 Political Skill........................................................................................................................ 13 The Moderating Role of Political Skill ................................................................................ 14. CHAPTER III. METHODOLOGY ................................................. 19. Hypothesis............................................................................................................................ 20 Sample.................................................................................................................................. 20 Data Collection Process ....................................................................................................... 20 Questionnaire Design ........................................................................................................... 21 Measurement ........................................................................................................................ 21 Control Variables ................................................................................................................. 24 Data Analysis ....................................................................................................................... 25 Pilot Test .............................................................................................................................. 28. CHAPTER IV RESULTS AND FINDINGS .................................. 31 Descriptive Statistics ............................................................................................................ 31 III.

(5) Correlation and Reliability Analysis .................................................................................... 33 Confirmatory Factory Analysis (CFA)................................................................................. 34 Regression Analysis ............................................................................................................. 34. CHAPTER V DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION ...................... 39 Cultural Intelligence and Job Satisfaction ........................................................................... 39 Political Skill as Moderator ................................................................................................. 40 Implications for Research .................................................................................................... 40 Implications for Practice ...................................................................................................... 41 Limitations of the Study....................................................................................................... 42 Future Research Suggestions ............................................................................................... 43. REFERENCES ................................................................................... 45. IV.

(6) LIST OF TABLES Table 3.1. The Cultural Intelligence (CQ) Scale ................................................................22 Table 3.2. The Job Satisfaction Scale....................................................................................23 Table 3.3. The Political Skill Scale ........................................................................................24 Table 3.4. Descriptive Statistics for Pilot Study ................................................................29 Table 3.5. Mean, Standard Deviation, Correlation and Reliability for Pilot Study .30 Table 4.1. Descriptive Statistics..............................................................................................32 Table 4.2. Mean, Standard Deviation, Correlation, and Reliability ...........................33 Table 4.3. Results of Confirmatory Factory Analysis ......................................................34 Table 4.4. Results of Hierarchical Regression Analysis for Hypothesis 1 .................36 Table 4.5. Result of Hierarchical Regression Analysis for Hypothesis 2 .................37 Table 4.6. Results of Hypotheses Testing ............................................................................37. V.

(7) LIST OF FIGURES Figure 3.1. Research framework ............................................................................................19 Figure 4.1. The interaction of cultural intelligence and political skill on job satisfaction ...........................................................................................................................38. VI.

(8) CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION This chapter provides an overview of the study and addresses the background of the study, problem statement, purpose of the study, research questions, and definition of key terms. The background describes the imperative of research on the current circumstance of the globalization trend and expatriates’ condition in Taiwan.. Background of the Study Due to the globalization trend, people have more opportunities to find a job outside of their nations. Many multinational corporations explore the international market by delivering their employees to other nations in order to fulfill their stipulated missions (Farh, Bartol, Shapiro, & Shin, 2010). According to data from the Ministry of Labor in 2015, there were 586,273 foreign workers in Taiwan, 29,000 were white-collar workers and most of them worked as engineers, managers and teachers. There is a great opportunity for expatriates in Taiwan to interact with people from different cultural backgrounds, but many problems immediately arise following the transitions to other countries. Expatriates understand that emotional expression, attitudes, behavior patterns and cultural values which are accepted in their own country may not be allowed in a cross-cultural environment (Chen, Lin, & Swangpattanakul, 2011). Expatriates will feel unfamiliar with foreign cultures and face obstacles in adapting to their new surroundings. For example, due to the lack of cultural knowledge and understanding, expatriates will suffer from misunderstandings and conflicts in cross-cultural environments (Lin, Chen & Song, 2012). Previous studies show that some expatriates fail their assignments because of their inability to adapt to a new culture (Kraimer, Wayne, & Jaworski, 2001; Lin et al., 2012). In 1.

(9) order to overcome these problems, it is necessary for people to have the intelligence to adjust or face the challenges in the host countries. To reduce the impact of a culturally diverse environment, expatriates should be aware of cultural differences as well as their own personal abilities. Cultural intelligence (CQ) is the ability to interpret the differences in the effectiveness of individual interactions across cultures (Earley, 2002; Earley & Ang, 2003). CQ refers to the ability to help individuals understand unfamiliar cultures and adjust their behaviors correspondingly so that they can have good performance (Earley & Ang, 2003). Kim, Kirkman and Chen (2008) also stated that people possessing a high CQ would be able to regulate both working and nonworking environments. Having a higher CQ means being able to adjust better to new cultures, understand local practice and behave appropriately. For this reason, it is very important for expatriates to have a high CQ in cross-cultural environments, so that they can acquire stable satisfaction. For most people, work takes most of the time in their life. It is very important for them to acquire stable emotions to keep working. “Employees with positive emotion can motivate them to pursue their goal and stimulate them to approach some behaviors, which are positive for organization (e.g., achieve goals or rewards)” (Watson, Wiese, Vaidya, & Tellegen, 1999, p.830). In terms of organizational context, George and Brief (1996) suggest that “happy employees” are more energized and therefore are readier to participate in work assignments. For employees to acquire positive emotion, it is very important for them to be satisfied with their work. According to Brief and Roberson (1989, p.86), job satisfaction can be best defined as “an internal state that is expressed by affectively and/or cognitively evaluating an 2.

(10) experienced job with some degree of favor or disfavor.” It is very important for individuals to fulfill their mission and acquire the supervisor’s respect, so they might have positive experiences in their work. Furthermore, Locke (1970) stated that job satisfaction can help to determine whether or not people obtain rewards; in other words, people who are satisfied with their job when they finish tasks may acquire rewards. For this reason, in order to complete their tasks, individuals need a kind of social ability to communicate with supervisors and cooperate with colleagues.. Mintzberg (1985) stated that organizations are inherently political arenas. Most researchers and practitioners also recognize that politics are part of the daily life in organizations (Ferris et al., 2002). Strong political skills help people to do their jobs in the organization. For example, they can build relationships and support each other. They can also use their sincere reactions to persuade people to trust them. They can adjust their behavior to accommodate foreign environments and adapt their social style (Ferris et al., 2005). Therefore, individuals’ high political skill offers them with more opportunities to succeed in organizations.. Problem Statement Job satisfaction leads expatriates to become productive and acquire motivation to work. Individuals with job satisfaction might have a great chance to improve their performance. Judge, Thoresen, Bono and Patton (2001) stated that job performance and job satisfaction are strongly related. In this way, compared to job performance, job satisfaction has a more direct relationship with CQ. Furthermore, Ang et al. (2007) also examined whether CQ is correlated. 3.

(11) with job satisfaction. While it is very important to clarify the relationship between CQ and job satisfaction, most related studies focus on the relationships between CQ and other variables such as expatriate performance (Lee & Sukoco, 2010) and cross-cultural adjustment (Chen, Wu, & Bian 2014), while the relationship between CQ and job satisfaction has rarely been discussed. It is also very important to investigate the relationship between CQ and job satisfaction. In addition, few studies have examined the specific relationship between political skill and job satisfaction (Harris, Harris, & Brouer, 2009). Meisler (2014) also suggests paying more attention to how political skill relates to employees’ job satisfaction in the future studies. The present study proposes political skill as an antecedent factor of job satisfaction. A review of the literature reveals that a few recent studies have simultaneously explored CQ and political skill, a key precursor of success in cross-cultural organization. If expatriates need CQ to work in a cross-cultural organization, and if political skill supports their building a network and acquiring assistance, expatriates can adjust to their life overseas very well. For example, individuals with low CQ who have high political skill still have the capability to use this skill to adjust to many sensitive behaviors. As a result, we suggest that expatriates should possess CQ and political skill so that they can work smoothly and successfully.. Study Purpose The purposes of this study are to examine the relationship between cultural intelligence and job satisfaction, as well as the moderating effect of political skill on the effect of cultural intelligence on job satisfaction.. 4.

(12) Research Questions This study developed two research questions: 1. Does cultural intelligence have a positive relationship with job satisfaction? 2. Can political skill positively moderate the relationship between cultural intelligence and job satisfaction?. Definition of Key Terms There are four key terms in this research: cultural intelligence (CQ), job satisfaction, political skill and expatriate.. Cultural Intelligence (CQ) The term CQ was first introduced in 2003 in the book Cultural Intelligence: Individual Interactions across Cultures by Christopher Earley and Soom Ang. CQ was characterized as an individual’s ability to acquire and deliver messages smoothly and effectively in different cultural settings and afterwards to make sensible judgments in response to the new cultural context (Earley & Ang, 2003).. Job Satisfaction The definition of job satisfaction, based on different research purposes, has different meanings (Johnston, 1997). Job satisfaction is characterized as the general mentality and positive state reflecting a full of feeling reaction, or response, of a person toward his or her work experience in regard to the perceived importance of the work achievement (Locke, 1976; Judge & Hurst, 2008).. Political Skill Political skill has been defined as “the ability to effectively understand others at work, 5.

(13) and to use such knowledge to influence others to act in ways that enhance one’s personal and/or organizational objectives” (Ahearn et al., 2004, p.315).. Expatriate Owing to the globalization trend and international labor market many work opportunities are provided for those people we call “expatriates” to work in other countries they desire or need to (Froese, 2012). In this research, we will collect white-collar workers as our samples. Horn and Schaffner (2003) stated that white-collar workers usually perform job duties in an office setting. They are highly skilled and formally trained professionals.. 6.

(14) CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW This chapter reviews the relevant literature for developing the framework and selecting variables for this study. First, the literature review on cultural intelligence (CQ), job satisfaction and political skill is presented. Then, we review the relationships among variables and discuss the moderating effect of political skill on the relationship between CQ and job satisfaction.. Expatriates in Taiwan Interactions across national borders have pervaded the daily activities of companies worldwide. According to Ministry of Labor data in 2015, there were 586,273 foreign workers in Taiwan; 29,000 were white-collar workers, and most of them worked as engineers, managers and teachers. A survey conducted by National Statistics, R.O.C. in 2015, also revealed that there were 4,900 white-collar workers working full-time teaching courses on foreign languages at short-term classes registered for supplementary schooling and 2,200 of the white-collar workers were regular school teachers. The globalization of the business world has not only increased the number of expatriate managers around the world, but also resulted in an increasing struggle with challenges companies face, such as control, coordination and knowledge transference across units (Holopainen & Björkman, 2005). Therefore, recruiting employees to work outside of their home country has become increasingly important. As a result, 2,300 foreign managers are working in multinational corporations in Taiwan. Furthermore, 1,700 expatriates are engaged in religious, artistic and show business work. However, the specialized or technical work is the major group in Taiwan. Approximately, 16,000 of white-collar workers are engaged in technical work. The 7.

(15) largest nationalities of white-collars workers are Japanese and American. For the location of foreign white-collar workers, most of them are distributed in Taipei: 12,000 white-collar workers are located in Taipei City, 2,800 white-collar workers work in New Taipei City, and 2,500 white-collar workers work in Taichung City.. Cultural Intelligence In the “real world” many types of intelligence focus on practical fields, such as social intelligence, emotional intelligence and practical intelligence. These three intelligences are recognized as having an impact on specific content belonging to different practical situations (Sternberg & Detterman, 1986). Globalization offers a great opportunity for people to interact with people from different nations (Farh et al., 2010). Earley and Ang (2003), who proposed the concept of cultural intelligence, stated that CQ is very practical for individuals facing the reality of globalization. Many previous researchers showed that CQ plays an important role in ranking an expatriate’s intelligence in accommodating to a foreign culture (Ang et al., 2007). CQ helps people to understand other cultures and it describes the difference between individuals during the time they interact with people from different cultures. CQ is recognized as a distinctive variable that can cultivate people’s intercultural effectiveness (Ang & Van Dyne, 2008; Earley & Ang, 2003). CQ has many dimensions comprising components which differ but are interrelated (Ang et al., 2010). The four dimensions are cognitive CQ, meta-cognitive CQ, motivational CQ and behavioral CQ (Earley & Ang, 2003). Meta-cognitive CQ, cognitive CQ, and motivational CQ are called mental capabilities, skills responsible for people’s intrinsic condition. Conversely, behavioral CQ controls people’s actions and extrinsic reaction (Ang et 8.

(16) al., 2007). Some researches stated that CQ’s four components enhance management efficiency in diverse cultural environments (Chen, Lin, & Sawangpattanakul, 2011). Cognitive intelligence means learning and understanding knowledge of the different cultures, including economic, legal and knowledge structures. Those with high cognitive intelligence grasp different kinds of cultural contents, and understand their similarities and dissimilarities. As a result, they are more likely to obtain accurate interpretations of cultural interactions. Meta-cognitive intelligence refers to the use of personal observation and interaction to properly understand different cultural knowledge; meta-cognitive intelligence also emphasizes higher order cognitive processes. They are purposely aware, in advance, of others’ cultural preferences; therefore those with high meta-cognitive intelligence can adjust their mental conditions during and after intercultural reactions. Motivational intelligence is related to the individual’s desire to adapt to an unfamiliar cultural environment and enjoy interacting with people from different cultural backgrounds. Individuals with high motivational intelligence have the sustainable energy to face some critical tasks or specific problems. Behavioral intelligence signifies individuals’ ability to use verbal or non-verbal language, such as words, tones, and facial expressions (Ng, Dyne, & Ang, 2009; Kim et al., 2008), in appropriate places when interacting with people from different cultures. The four aspects of CQ are qualitatively different and complement each other, so that their functions can be used to effectively manage situations in culturally diverse settings (Earley & Ang, 2003).. Job Satisfaction Obtaining job satisfaction on their own is very important to most of people (Bücker, Furrer, Poutsma, & Buyens, 2014). The definition of job satisfaction changes, based on 9.

(17) different research purposes (Johnston, 1997). Job satisfaction is characterized as the general mentality and positive state reflecting a full of feeling reaction or response of a person towards his or her work experience (Locke, 1976; Judge & Hurst, 2008).. Herzberg (1972) proposed the motivation-hygiene theory in regard to job satisfaction. The most popular conceptualization of job satisfaction is also called intrinsic-extrinsic theory (Weiss, Dawis, & England, 1967). Intrinsic satisfaction is when workers consider only the kind of work they do, i.e. the tasks that make up their job. Extrinsic satisfaction is when workers consider the conditions of work, such as their pay, coworkers and supervisor (Downes, Thomas, & McLarney, 2000). These two types of satisfaction differ, and also help us to look at jobs from both points of view.. Cultural Intelligence and Job Satisfaction As implied by these definitions, job satisfaction becomes very important in relation to personal outcome. Some researches state that job satisfaction is positively related to performance (Tett & Meyer, 1993). In expatriates’ perspectives, their job satisfaction depends on whether they can adjust themselves to an overseas environment, such as job requirements and interpersonal associations with employees or customers in foreign countries (Shaffer & Harrison, 1998). Chen et al. (2011) recommend that CQ may be connected with expatriates’ satisfaction, i.e. if they experience culture shock or feel comfortable. People who experience greater job satisfaction become more positive and productive workers. It is very important for employees who work in foreign countries to avoid negative results and acquire job satisfaction (Bücker et al., 2014).. 10.

(18) Many previous studies state that CQ plays an important role in measuring individual intelligence in terms of adapting to a new culture (Ang & Van Dyne, 2008; Earley & Ang, 2003). Weiss et al. (1967) state that job satisfaction is a key indicator in observing individuals in a company, whether or not they accommodate themselves to a new working environment; they may use their adjustment ability to overcome the challenges of this situation. CQ is partially determined by an expatriate’s self-concept, which expands the chances and inspiration of adaption and appropriate behavior in cross-cultural context settings (Earley & Ang, 2003). Moreover, individuals with self-concept are more willing to improve their work attitudes, such as job satisfaction (Erez & Judge, 2001); Bonache (2005) indicates that this is also a very important phenomenon, especially for people who have jobs in international business. Thomas et al. (2008) proposed that through continuous learning and interactions in social situations, individuals could enhance their level of CQ. Furthermore, those with high CQ may be more fulfilled and satisfied by proactively interactions in cross-cultural behavior. Thus, by understanding and grasping different international environments, one may acquire higher job satisfaction (Best, Stapleton, & Downey, 2005). Livermore (2011) also explained that when individuals with high CQ face culturally diverse circumstances, CQ helps them to easily solve problems that arise; they feel less fatigue because they acquire the higher personal satisfaction. Furthermore, people with higher personal satisfaction will motivate themselves to work harder and feel more energetic while doing their job.. Leaders should also motivate employees so that they will gain satisfaction (Northouse, 2007). For instance, in international project teams, if the team leader whose leadership style is transformational, team members will enjoy positive team performance, work adjustment, 11.

(19) and job satisfaction (Gundersen, Helessoy, & Raeder, 2012). Sahin (2011) indicates that leaders with high behavioral and motivational CQ will cause their employees to experience greater satisfaction, and will also enhance their organizational citizenship behavior. When it comes to the organizational perspective, “unhappy employees” or those dissatisfied with their job,will be reluctant to devote extra effort to their organization. In other words, employees may opt to exit the company (Ng, Sorensen, & Yim, 2009). Thus, it is very important for expatriates to possess CQ so that they will have satisfaction and motivation to stay in the company.. According to the samples of 225 Chinese managers who worked for foreign multinational enterprises in China, the results showed that CQ was positively related to job satisfaction. CQ helps individuals to grasp complex intercultural situations and to understand cultural differences (Bücker et al., 2014). In other words, “Those with higher CQ capabilities are more likely to feel adjusted in situations characterized by cultural diversity” (Van Dyne, Ang, & Nielsen, 2007, p. 347). Finally, CQ will help people to increase their level of control in multicultural interactions, and they can expect to enhance their job satisfaction (Bücker et al., 2014). Barakat, Lorenz, Ramsey, & Cretoiu (2015) collected samples from 332 global managers who work in multinational corporations in Brazil. They showed that job satisfaction is a highly possible outcome variable of CQ. Moreover, job satisfaction might mediate the relationship between CQ and job performance. CQ cultivates people to be more motivated, goal oriented and to possess the relevant knowledge to face obstacles, thereby enriching their job satisfaction. Accordingly, expatriates with high CQ tend to develop positive attitudes during their work, resulting in job satisfaction. 12.

(20) Yesil (2013) examined 200 managers who work in the textile industry. The result showed that CQ (Meta-cognitive CQ, Motivation CQ, Behavior CQ, but not cognitive CQ) was positively associated with job satisfaction. CQ helps managers to easily manage cross-cultural interactions like communication and cross-cultural teamwork, thereby increasing job satisfaction. Based on the sample of 26 expatriate teachers in a private American International School, the results showed that teachers who have high CQ, are more satisfied with their job; high CQ facilitates their smooth interactions with colleagues, helps them attain the lifestyle they desire in different cultures and enables the formation of concrete social and community connections (Sims, 2011). Livermore (2011) also demonstrated that teachers who have high CQ facing students from different nations and cultural contexts, know how to use relevant ways to teach and have flexible thinking on feedback strategies. Consequently, CQ would enhance expatriates’ cross-cultural interaction abilities, such as collaboration, communication and problem solving, thereby increasing their job satisfaction. Based on the above discussion, the following hypothesis is offered.. Hypothesis 1. CQ positively relates to job satisfaction.. Political Skill Political skill was defined as “the ability to effectively understand others at work, and to use such knowledge to influence others to act in ways that enhance one’s personal and/or organizational objectives” (Ahearn et al., 2004, p.315). According to Pfeffer (1981), it is very important for people in organizations to have political skill so that they may acquire success. Mintzberg (1983) stated that political skill is an exercise through persuasion, manipulation. 13.

(21) and negotiation to achieve goals or complete tasks. Mintzberg (1985) identified that political skill can enhance work efficiency; to survive in an organization, people need to build the capability to influence, convince and control others. Social influence theory explains that people in an organization are eager to construct and maintain useful or meaningful social relationships (Cialdini & Goldstein, 2004). Individuals who have political skill will have social competencies as well. This skill will help them to influence others in social interactions during work; moreover, they will use this ability to achieve their personal goals or organizational goals (Blickle et al., 2012). Todd, Harris, Harris, & Wheeler (2009) also indicate that individuals who have the political skill have the ability to understand organizational requirements and utilize their social presentation in a proper way to influence others’ decision-making. Cogliser & Schriesheim (2000) and Dienesch & Liden (1986) propose that employees who have high-quality relationships acquire more support from their supervisors. Ferris et al. (2007) also find that political skills lead colleagues to believe them; thus, they will accumulate support from different people. Political skills help people understand what performance criteria are required, and whether this performance will make supervisors notice them; thus, they will acquire their desired rewards (Brouer, Harris, & Kacmar, 2011).. The Moderating Role of Political Skill Crowne (2009) believes that intelligence is an interesting term and that researchers still need to continue investigating it. Intelligence can be examined in different fields, such as CQ. Gottfredson (2002) recognized intelligence as a general mental ability, which can be defined as the capability to solve and integrate complexity. Peterson (2011) stated that CQ “is the 14.

(22) ability to engage in a set of behaviors that uses skills (i.e. language or interpersonal skills) and qualities (e.g. tolerance for ambiguity, flexibility) that are tuned appropriately to the culture-based values and attitudes of the people with whom one interacts” (p.89). Ang, Van Dyne, & Koh (2006) also believe that Meta-cognition CQ and Cognitive CQ are in the same dimension, mental intelligence. All together for this viable interaction to happen, people must perceive cultural signs, acquire cultural learning, comprehend the cultural ramifications of their connections and act adequately in different culture contexts (Crowne, 2009). Furthermore, people with political skills are always trying to put themselves into other people’s shoes and know where to exert their energy, to sense what is conceivable, and to support organizations (Mintzberg, 1983). Research demonstrates that managerial intelligence includes three levels of intelligence: analytical, practical and creative. Political skill belongs to practical intelligence. The practical level is more important than the analytical level because practical intelligence describes the conception of tacit knowledge, which can only be cultivated through experience (Perrewé, Ferris, Frink, & Anthony, 2000).. Many studies suggest that political skill by measured by the index called the political skill inventory; the four components are interpersonal influence; networking ability; social astuteness and apparent sincerity (Ferris et al., 2005). First of all, individuals who have interpersonal influence are adept at persuading people, and they will use their unique personal style to influence people around them. Secondly, people with a high level of networking ability easily create relationships with others; moreover, they tend to preserve their friendships and make them more concrete and collative. Third, individuals with good social astuteness have a strong ability to observe different people and change their reactions 15.

(23) or even the social environment, they can still adapt their social style to suit appropriate situations. Last but not least, for individuals with sincerity, their reactions or motives do not lead people to feel they are selfish, but rather sincere and warm. Apparent sincerity is a critical indicator whether or not a requirement will be successfully handled because it emphasizes perceived intentions (i.e. as assessed by the target of influence) of the exhibited behavior (i.e. by the actor) (Ferris et al., 2005).. Individuals with social astuteness may find that it quickly helps them in diverse social settings. Furthermore, people with meta-cognitive intelligence may discover that it helps them change cultural settings. If people can simultaneously change their social and cultural setting, they must be successful in their jobs. Ferris et al. (2002) and Lee & Sukoco (2010) stated that CQ and political skill would increase job performance; in other words, both of these have the ability to adjust people’s behavior and enhance performance. People need to have the ability to communicate with others, so that they can stir their positive imagination. Therefore, behavioral intelligence gives people the competency to communicate with organizational members, sincerity helping them to improve by being honest and forthright.. Munyon, Summers, Thompson, & Ferris (2015) conclude that political skill should positively predict job satisfaction. Ferris et al. (2008) and Todd et al. (2009) also agree that political skill is positively related to job satisfaction. Locke (1970) stated that political skill reflects the evaluation of job satisfaction. Harris, Harris, & Brouer, (2009) also shows that people with low political skill will also have low job satisfaction. Individuals with political skilled realize that work is a platform for them to achieve their personal goals (Ferris et al.,. 16.

(24) 2005; 2007). For this reason, political skill can serve as a facilitator to effectively acquire self-worth, enabling individuals to receive job satisfaction. Pierce, Gardner, Cummings, & Dunham (1989) also posited that if organizations can make individuals feel confident about their self-worth and competence, the employees will be motivated to perform well at work. These behaviors enhance employees’ accomplishments and their intrinsic job satisfaction. Gallagher and Laird (2008) propose that individuals with high political skill might have an ability to handle workplace stressors very well, such as political decision-making, thus increasing their job satisfaction.. The social cognitive theory explains that reciprocal causation exists (Bandura, 1986) among environment, behavior and personal factors. Evaluating behavioral change depends on factors such as environment, people and behavior. Researchers also show that individuals’ efficacy and ability to deal with difficult issues will determine their individual outcomes (Wood & Bandura, 1989), which, in our research, is job satisfaction. Individuals with high political skill are more aware of their environment, so they will implement high self-monitoring skills (Ferris et al., 2005). Furthermore, they will change their attitudes and behaviors more effectively to adapt to changing environments. Accordingly, the following discussion, which is grounded in Bandura’s social cognitive theory, brings together the previously stated literature, with CQ being the environment, political skill being the individual-difference factor and job satisfaction being the outcome. Above all, people with political skill may express their point of view in the appropriate places and even relevant times because they are good at observing and understanding their supervisors mood; this will lead them more easily to satisfaction (Harris et al., 2009). 17.

(25) Perrewé et al. (2004) state that political skill gives people an understanding of others and the belief “that they can control the processes and outcomes of interactions with others” (p. 143). Furthermore, individuals with high political skill can adjust their interactions with managers to achieve their purpose or acquire what they want (Perrewé et al. 2004). This sense of control comes in part from having built social networks in which relationships are characterized by confidence, trust and sincerity. They are good at observing and use their communication skill to deliver messages to their supervisors such as their purpose or what they want; therefore, they might have a great opportunity to acquire job satisfaction (Harris et al., 2009). Individuals who could combine their high-quality relationship and high political skill may receive high job satisfaction. Above all, we can assume that political skill is related to job satisfaction. We offer individuals’ political skill as an example of this kind of proficiency, and expect political skill to moderate the relationship between CQ and job satisfaction.. Hypothesis 2. Political skill moderates the positive relationship between CQ and job satisfaction. Specifically, the higher the political skill, the stronger the effect of CQ on job satisfaction.. 18.

(26) CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY This chapter provides information on the methodology used to conduct this research. First, it presents the framework and the hypotheses tested. Then, it provides information about the sample, data collection methods and the questionnaires used to develop the research.. The following framework illustrates the relationships tested throughout this study.. Political Skill H2 Cultural Intelligence (CQ). Job Satisfaction. H1. Control Variables -Age -Tenure in organization. Figure 3.1. Research framework. 19.

(27) Hypothesis Based on the previous literature, the research purpose, research questions and the hypotheses of the study are proposed as follows: Hypotheses 1: CQ positively relates to job satisfaction. Hypotheses 2: Political skill positively moderates the relationship between CQ and job satisfaction. Specifically, the higher the political skill, the stronger the effect of CQ on job satisfaction.. Sample The target population of the study is the expatriates working in Taiwan. The data were collected from expatriates who have worked in Taiwan at least three months as white-collar workers (e.g., teacher, lawyer, engineer and manager). Data were collected through expatriates in Taiwan by using 200 paper-based questionnaires and 102 online questionnaires.. Data Collection Process Convenience sampling and snowball sampling were used in this study. The main approach used to conduct data collection was to visit the National Immigration Agency in person in order to obtain permission from the agency managers. After permission was granted, paper-based questionnaires were distributed to the participants one by one. Firstly, we asked them how long they had been working in Taiwan to confirm the participants were suitable for our research. Secondly, we observed their behavior and English ability to confirm if they were white-collar expatriates. We distributed our online questionnaires through some social media such as facebook. We posted our online questionnaires to the facebook club that 20.

(28) consisted of expatriates in Taiwan and asked the club members to help us finish our research. Those officebook clubs consist of English teachers in Taiwan; for this reason; we confirmed that they were all white-collar expatriates. For snowball sampling, we asked our friends to find their white-collar expatriates’ friends and help us to collect questionnaires from them.. Questionnaire Design The questionnaire was designed to collect data on cultural intelligence, job satisfaction and political skill. The scales adopted in this questionnaire were all well developed. The content of the scale’s items was all valid. The items in the questionnaire are in English. As most of the white-collar expatriates were highly educated, their English ability was good enough to answer questions. To confirm the validity of the questionnaire, it also designed to reduce common method variance (CMV), which might make the systematic measurement error (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Lee, & Podsakoff, 2003). First of all, the answers of respondents were confidential to encourage subjects to respond as honestly as possible. Second, the questionnaire used different scale formats including two 5-point Likert scales and on 7-point Likert scales to reduce CMV.. Measurement Cultural Intelligence The CQ scale was adopted from Ang et al. (2007). A total of 20 items were contained in this scale, and they were separated into four constructions (4 items for meta-cognitive CQ, 6 items of cognitive CQ, 5 items for motivational CQ and 5 items for behavioral CQ). All items were rated on a 7-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree, 7 = strongly agree). Cronbach’s 21.

(29) alpha reliability of the four dimensions of CQ in the present study ranged from 0.79 to 0.87. Sample items included “I adjust my cultural knowledge as I interact with people from a culture that is unfamiliar to me.” Individuals with a high score signified that they have an ability to accommodate to new culture environments. Table 3.1. The Cultural Intelligence (CQ) Scale Dimensions. Items. Meta-Cognitive. 1. I am aware of the cultural knowledge I use when interacting with. CQ. people from different cultural backgrounds. 2. I adjust my cultural knowledge as I interact with people from a culture that is unfamiliar to me. 3. I am aware of the cultural knowledge I apply to cross-cultural interactions. 4. I check the correctness of my knowledge as I interact with people from different cultures.. Cognitive CQ. 1. I know the laws and economics of other cultures. 2. I know the rules (e.g. vocabulary, grammar) of other languages. 3. I know the cultural values and religious beliefs of other cultures. 4. I know the marriage systems of other cultures. 5. I know the arts and crafts of other cultures. 6. I know the rules for expressing nonverbal behaviors in other cultures.. Motivational CQ. 1. I enjoy interacting with people from different cultures. 2. I am confident that I can socialize with locals in a culture that is unfamiliar to me. 3. I am sure I can deal with the stresses of adjusting to a culture that is new to me. 4. I enjoy living in cultures that are unfamiliar to me. 5. I am confident that I can adjust to the shopping conditions in a different culture. (continued). 22.

(30) Table 3.1. (continued). Behavioral. 1. I change my verbal behavior (e.g. accent, tone) when a cross-cultural. CQ. interaction requires it. 2. I use pauses and silence differently to suit different cross-cultural situations. 3. I change the speed of my speaking when a cross-cultural situation requires it. 4. I change my nonverbal behavior when a cross-cultural situation requires it. 5. I change my facial expressions when a cross-cultural interaction requires it.. Job Satisfaction The job satisfaction scale was adopted from Anderson, Coffey and Byerly (2002); Cronbach’s alpha reliability was 0.8. The job satisfaction scale consists of five items. The sample items for job satisfaction are: “The work I do on my job is meaningful to me” and “At the company or organization where I work, I am treated with respect” All item responses were on a 5-point Likert scale 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Table 3.2. The Job Satisfaction Scale Job Satisfaction 1.. The work I do on my job is meaningful to me.. 2.. At the company or organization where I work, I am treated with respect.. 3.. I feel I am really a part of the group of people I work with.. 4.. I look forward to being with the people I work with each day.. 5.. The opportunities that I have at work to learn new skills could help me get a better job or find another equally good job if this one doesn’t work out. 23.

(31) Political Skill We used the six items political skill scale derived from Perrewé et al. (2004). Cronbach’s alpha reliability of political skill was 0.71. The representative items include: “I find it easy to envision myself in the position of others” and “I usually try to find common ground with others”. All items were rated on a 5-point Likert-type scale (1 = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree). Table 3.3. The Political Skill Scale Political Skill 1.. I find it easy to envision myself in the positions of others.. 2.. I am able to make most people feel comfortable and at ease around me.. 3.. It is easy for me to develop good rapport with most people.. 4.. I understand people well.. 5.. I am good at getting others to respond positively to me.. 6.. I usually try to find common ground with others.. Control Variables Based on the literature review, the researcher found some demographic variables that influence job satisfaction. Therefore, the demographic variables were added in the personal information part of the questionnaire. We can explain the relationships between dependent and independent variables through controlling the influence of demographic variables. The control variables are listed in the following:. 24.

(32) Age Previous studies indicated that age was relevant to job satisfaction since older expatriates are more satisfied with their work in a foreign country (Clark, Oswald, & Warr, 1996; Herzberg, Mausner, Peterson, & Campbell, 1957; Cranny, Smith, & Stone, 1992).. Tenure in organization Previous studies found that tenure in organization affected job satisfaction, including negative and positive effect (Bedeian, Ferris, & Kacmar 1992; Ng & Feldman, 2010).. Data Analysis This was a quantitative study. The statistic instruments of SPSS 22 and AMOS 22.0 were used in this research to analyze the data. The analysis methods follow.. Pearson Correlation Analysis In order to know the relationships among cultural intelligence, job satisfaction and political skill, Pearson coefficient was used to examine the correlations. Pearson’s correlation (r) were used to determine whether there was linear or direct correlation between variables; when the correlation is high, it shows that there is a strong relationship between two variables. The number of correlation should between 1 and -1. When r = 1, it is a perfect correlation. If r = 0, there is no correlation. If r = -1, it is perfect negative correlation. Negligible correlation is considered for r = .01 to r = .09; low correlation is considered for r = .10 to r = .29; Moderate correlation is considered when r is between 0.30 and 0.49; substantial correlation is considered when r is between 0.50 and 0.69; very high correlation is considered when r is between 0.70 and 0.99 (Davis, 1971). The correlation coefficient illustrates whether variables. 25.

(33) are related and considered as the base, when explaining whether a variable can make predictions of the outcome variable.. Descriptive Statistics This study used descriptive statistics to describe the characteristics of subjects. The frequency distribution and the percentage of numbers were used to determine the distribution patter of subjects in age, gender marriage, country located and tenure in organization.. Confirmatory Factory Analysis (CFA) CFA is used to determine how well a measurement model generalizes across groups or time (Brown, 1993). In other words, CFA was used herein to examine whether an existing measure that was developed in the past was appropriate for the current population. Outputs of highest interest for this study included X2/df, RMSEA, IFI, TLI and CFI to examine measurement models’ goodness of fit. X2/df refers to Chi-square divided by degrees of freedom, which is also known as the relative chi-square. Chi-square is a fundamental statistical measure to assess the statistical probability that predicts and observes if covariance matrices are actually equal in a current population. It is a guide showing what the fit of data to the modal is when dropping pathways. Different researchers have recommended that X2/df can be as low as 2 or as high as 5 to indicate a reasonable fit (Marsh & Hocevar, 1985). Root mean square error or approximation (RMSEA) compares lack of fit to the saturated model. According to some researchers, RMSEA should be less than .08 (Browne & Cudeck, 1993). The incremental fit index, also known as Bollen's IFI, is also relatively insensitive to sample size. Values that exceed .90 are regarded as acceptable, although this index can exceed 1. Tucker Lewis index (TLI), 26.

(34) sometimes called the non-normed fit index (NNFI), is similar to the NFI. However, the index is lowe; hence, the model is regarded as less acceptable. TLI greater than or equal to 0.9 indicates acceptable model fit. The comparative fit index (CFI) compares the fit of a target model to the fit of an independent model. Roughly, the CFI thus represents the extent to which the model of interest is better than the independence model. Values that approach 1 indicate acceptable fit.. Regression Analysis Hierarchical Regression Analysis Hierarchical linear regression analysis was used to examine the relationship between cultural intelligence and job satisfaction. Two steps were conducted. In the first step, control variables were entered. In the second step, the independent variable was entered to test the effect of this variable on the dependent variable. Hierarchical linear regression analysis (Baron & Kenny, 1986; Cohen, Cohen, West, & Aiken, 2003) was also used to examine the moderating role of political skill in the relationship between cultural intelligence and job satisfaction. In order to reduce the multicollinearity problem, before calculating an interaction term (cultural intelligence x political skill), cultural intelligence and political skill were centered by subtracting the mean from the original ones (Aiken & West, 1991). Three steps were conducted to test the moderating effect of political skill. In the first step, the control variable was entered. In the second step, the independent variable and the moderator were entered simultaneously to test the impact of the two variables on the dependent variable. Above all, the third step was to enter the multiplication item to test the interaction effect on the dependent variable. 27.

(35) Pilot Test A pilot study was implemented to insure the reliability of the instruments. The purpose was to identify confusing items, to provide suggestions for improving the format and wording, and to evaluate the overall appearance of the instrument. Questionnaire revisions were made based on the feedback from respondents. Although larger samples are better for the precision of estimations, a reasonable minimum sample size for a pilot study to do a preliminary research is 30 (Johanson & Brooks, 2009). For this reason, the sample size was 30 collected from different expatriates; data collection was finished in one week. Table 3.5 summarizes the descriptive statistics analysis describing the frequency distribution and the percentage of numbers to understand the demographic information of the samples. Most of the respondents were male (56.7%) and female (43.4%). The respondents predominately were 31 to 40 years old (56.8%) and 31 to 40 years old (36.7%). Over half of the respondents (60%) were still single and 30% of them were married, only 10% of them were divorced or separated. For the country location, 33.3% of them were from Asia and 20% from North America, with only 13.3% from Africa. Most respondents had worked less than one year (53.3%); 46.7% of them have worked more than one year. In this pilot study, reliability and the Pearson correlation analyses were also conducted to confirm the reliability of the measurement and to preliminarily understand the relationships among variables. Table 3.6 demonstrates the mean, standard deviation, correlations and reliability. First, for the reliability analysis, the accepted value of Cronbach’s alpha has to be greater than 0.7 (Nunnally, 1978). Cronbach’s alpha for the scale of political skill was 0.61; Cronbach’s alpha for the scale of cultural intelligence was 0.9 and Cronbach’s 28.

(36) alpha for the scale of job satisfaction was 0.71. Second, the result of the correlation analysis indicated that political skill exhibited a significant and positive substantial correlation with cultural intelligence (r = .53, p< .01). Furthermore, job satisfaction also exhibited a significant and positive substantial correlation with cultural intelligence (r = .53, p< .01). Lastly, job satisfaction exhibited a significant and positive moderate correlation with political skill (r = .37, p< .05). Table 3.4. Descriptive Statistics for Pilot Study (N=30) Item 1. Gender. 2. Age. 3. Marriage. 4. Country located. Frequency. Percentage. Female. 13. 43.3%. Male. 17. 56.7%. Total. 30. 100%. 21-30 years old. 17. 56.8%. 31-40 years old. 11. 36.7%. 41-50 years old. 2. 6.5%. Total. 30. 100%. Married. 9. 30.0%. Single. 18. 60.0%. Divorce/Separated/Widowed. 3. 10.0%. Total. 30. 100%. Asia. 10. 33.3%. North America. 6. 20.0%. South America. 0. 0% (continued). 29.

(37) Table 3.4. (continued). 5. Tenure in organization. Central America. 0. 0%. Africa. 4. 13.3%. Europe. 8. 26.7%. Australia and Oceania. 2. 6.7%. Total. 30. 100%. Last than 1 year. 16. 53.3%. 1-5 years. 8. 26.7%. 6-10 years. 3. 10%. 11-15 years. 1. 3.3%. 16-20 years. 2. 6.7%. Total. 30. 100%. Table 3.5. Mean, Standard Deviation, Correlation and Reliability for Pilot Study (N=30) Mean. S.D.. 31.03. 5.4. 2. Tenure in organization. 4.13. 5.44. .58**. 3. Political Skill. 3.57. .47. 4. Cultural Intelligence. 4.97. 5. Job Satisfaction. 3.78. 1. Age. 1. 2. 3. .17. -.19. (.61). .86. -.03. -.20. .53**. (.90). .62. .16. -.05. .37*. .53**. Note. Two-tailed test. The Cronbach’s alpha estimates are in parentheses. *p< .05. **p<.01.. 30. 4. 5. (.71).

(38) CHAPTER IV RESULTS AND FINDINGS This chapter presents the results of data analysis and findings on the hypotheses in this study. First of all, the descriptive statistics analysis is presented. Second, the results of the reliability analysis and the correlation analysis (among cultural intelligence, political skill and job satisfaction) are demonstrated. Third, the results of confirmatory factor analysis are shown. The final part of this chapter presents the findings of hypotheses tested by the hierarchical multiple regression analysis.. Descriptive Statistics The sample was collected from 269 white-collar expatriates located in Taiwan. A total of 302 questionnaires were distributed. Table 4.1 summarizes the frequency and percentage of the demographic information of the samples. In the initial stages of the survey, the majority were male (73.6%); 26.4% were female. Most of respondents were 21 to 30 years old (43.9%) and 31 to 40 years old (39.0%). The respondents mostly came from Asia (37.2%) and North America (26.4%). Only 10% of them were form Europe. Surprisingly, the majority of the respondents to the questionnaire indicated that they had work in their current company for more than one year (76.2%); only 23.8% of them had worked for less than one year.. 31.

(39) Table 4.1. Descriptive Statistics (N=269) Item. Frequency. Percentage. Female. 71. 26.4%. Male. 198. 73.6%. Total. 269. 100%. 21-30 years old. 118. 43.9%. 31-40 years old. 105. 39.0%. 41-50 years old. 28. 10.4%. 51-60 years old. 14. 5.2%. 61-70 years old. 1. 0.4%. 71-80 years old. 3. 1.1%. Total. 269. 100%. Married. 108. 40.1%. Single. 150. 55.8%. Divorce/Separated/Widowed. 11. 4.1%. Total. 269. 100%. Asia. 100. 37.2%. North America. 71. 26.4%. South America. 12. 4.5%. Central America. 37. 13.8%. Africa. 10. 3.7%. Europe. 27. 10.0%. Australia and Oceania. 12. 4.5%. Total. 269. 100%. 5. Tenure in the. Less than 1 year. 63. 23.8%. organization. 1-5 years. 149. 55.4%. 6-10 years. 32. 11.9%. 11-15 years. 14. 4.8%. 16-20 years. 4. 1.5%. 21-25 years. 2. 0.7%. 26-30 years. 5. 1.9%. 269. 100%. 1. Gender. 2. Age. 3. Marriage. 4. Country located. Total 32.

(40) Correlation and Reliability Analysis The reliability and Pearson correlation analyses were conducted to confirm the reliability of the measurement and to understand the relationship between variables. Table 4.2 presents the mean, standard deviation, reliability and correlation among variables. For the reliability analysis, the accepted value of Cronbach’s alpha has to be greater than 0.7 (Nunnally, 1978). Cronbach’s alpha for three measurements exceeded the accepted value (Cronbach’s alpha for the scale of political skill＝.81; Cronbach’s alpha for the scale of cultural intelligence = .92; Cronbach’s alpha for the scale of job satisfaction = .82). The result of the Pearson correlation analysis presented that political skill had a significant and positive moderate correlation with cultural intelligence (r = .45, p< .001). Furthermore, job satisfaction had a significant and positive moderate correlation with political skill (r = .35, p< .001). Lastly, job satisfaction exhibited a significant and highly positive correlation with cultural intelligence (r = .23, p< .001). Table 4.2. Mean, Standard Deviation, Correlation, and Reliability (N=269) Mean. S.D.. 33.73. 9.55. 2.Tenure in organization. 4.05. 5.43. .59**. 3. Political Skill. 3.86. .59. 4. Cultural Intelligence. 5.30. 5. Job Satisfaction. 3.96. 1. Age. 1. 2. 3. .02. -.00. (.81). .76. .11. .02. .45***. (.92). .66. .21**. .20**. .35***. .23***. Note. Two-tailed test. The Cronbach’s alpha estimates are in parentheses. *p< .05. **p<.01. ***p< .001. 33. 4. 5. (.82).

(41) Confirmatory Factory Analysis (CFA) Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was performed to examine the appropriateness of measurements in the current population by AMOS 22.0. In this study, the number of respondents was 269. The number of observed variables of the cultural intelligence inventory was 20, the number of the political skill inventory was 6 and the number of job satisfaction inventory was 5. As can be seen in Table 4.3, the fit indices of cultural intelligence indicated that the X2/df (2.82), IFI (.91), TLI (.89), CFI (.90) and RMSEA (.08) were all at an acceptable fit. Second, the fit indices of political skill demonstrated that the X2/df (5.27), IFI (.92) and CFI (.92) were at acceptable fit. However, TLI (.87) and RMSEA (.12) need to be improved. Lastly, the fit indices of job satisfaction showed that the X2/df (5.84), IFI (.95), TLI (.90) and CFI (.95) were at an acceptable fit. However, RMSEA (.13) needs to be improved. Table 4.3. Results of Confirmatory Factory Analysis (N=269) Variable. X2. df. X2/df. IFI. TLI. CFI. RMSEA. Cultural Intelligence. 467.61. 166. 2.82. .91. .90 GFI. .90 AGFI. .08 RMSEA. Political Skill. 47.47. 9. 5.27. .92. .87 .86. .92 .82. .12 .08. Job Satisfaction. 29.20. 5. 5.84. .95. .90. .95. .13. Regression Analysis. .96. .88. .13. Tables 4.4 and 4.5 demonstrate the regression analysis for Hypothesis 1 and 2. Hierarchical linear regression analysis was performed to test the relationship between cultural intelligence and job satisfaction by SPSS. Two steps were conducted. In the first step, age and tenure in an organization were entered. In the second step, the cultural intelligence and 34.

(42) political skill were entered to test the effect of the variable on job satisfaction. Moreover, the moderating effect of political skill was also tested by hierarchical linear regression analysis. In order to reduce the multicollinearity problem, before calculating an interaction term (cultural intelligence x political skill), cultural intelligence and political skill were centered by subtracting the mean from the original ones (Aiken & West, 1991). Three steps were conducted to test the moderating effect of political skill. In the first step, age and tenure in an organization were entered. In the second step, cultural intelligence and political skill were entered to test the impact of the two variables on the Job Satisfaction. Above all, the third step was entering the interaction term (cultural intelligence x political skill) to test the interaction effect on job satisfaction. The beta coefficient and the significance of cultural intelligence were examined to test the relationship between cultural intelligence and job satisfaction. Furthermore, the beta coefficient and the significance of the interaction item were examined to realize the moderating effect.. Hierarchical Regression Analysis Hypothesis 1 posited that high cultural intelligence is positively associated with job satisfaction. The result of Hierarchical regression analysis in Table 4.4 presents that cultural intelligence is significantly and positively associated with job satisfaction (β = .22, p< .001; Model 2). Accordingly, Hypothesis 1 was supported. Hypothesis 2 stated that political skill positively moderates the relationship between cultural intelligence and job satisfaction; specifically, the higher the political skill, the stronger the effect of cultural intelligence on job satisfaction. The results of hierarchical linear regression analysis in Table 4.5 indicates that the interaction term is significantly and negatively associated with job satisfaction (β = -1.05, 35.

(43) p < .05, Model 3). However, cultural intelligence was significantly and positively related to job satisfaction (β = .65, p< .05, Model 3) political skill was also significantly and positively associated with job satisfaction (β = .95, p < .01, Model 3). In regard to examining the moderating effect in detail, an interacting plot was drawn. Figure 4.1 indicates the moderating effects of political skill. Mean was used to recode political skill into two categories (below mean= low political skill; above mean= high political skill). Surprisingly, this figure presents that expatriates with higher levels of political skill and cultural intelligence reach the lowest levels of job satisfaction. On the contrary, expatriates with higher levels of cultural intelligence but lower levels of political skill tend to have the highest levels of job satisfaction. Hypothesis 2 was not supported. Table 4.4. Results of Hierarchical Regression Analysis for Hypothesis 1 (N=269) Job Satisfaction Standardized Coefficients (Beta) Step1.. Step2.. Model 1. Model 2. Age. .14. .13. Tenure in organization. .12. .11. Control Variable. Main Effect Cultural Intelligence R. .22***. 2. Adj. R. .05** 2. 0.1***. .05**. .09***. .05**. .05***. F. 7.27**. 9.55***. △F. 7.27**. 13.41***. △R. 2. Note. Two-tailed test. *p<.05. , **p< .01. , ***p< .001.. 36.

(44) Table 4.5. Result of Hierarchical Regression Analysis for Hypothesis 2 (N=269) Job Satisfaction Standardized Coefficients (Beta) Model 1. Model 2. Model 3. Age. .14. .12. .12. Tenure in organization. .12. .13. .14. Cultural Intelligence. .07. .65*. Political Skill. .32***. .95*. Step1. Control Variable. Step2. Main Effect. Step3. Interaction Cultural Intelligence x Political Skill. -1.05*. R2. .05**. .18***. .19*. Adj. R2. .05**. .17***. .18*. △R2. .05**. .13***. .02*. F. 7.3**. 14.2***. △F. 7.27**. 20.1***. 12.47*** 4.72*. Note. Two-tailed test. *p<.05 , **p< .01 , ***p< .001. Table 4.6. Results of Hypotheses Testing Hypotheses. Result. H 1. CQ positively relates to job satisfaction.. Supported. H 2. Political skill moderates the positive relationship between CQ and job satisfaction; specifically, the higher the political skill, the stronger the effect of CQ on job satisfaction.. 37. Not supported.

(45) Figure 4.1. The interaction of cultural intelligence and political skill on job satisfaction. 38.

(46) CHAPTER V DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION This chapter provides the conclusion of this study based on the research findings, and offers suggestions. The results indicate that cultural intelligence is positively associated with job satisfaction. However, this study also showed that expatriates with higher levels of political skill and cultural intelligence had the lowest levels of job satisfaction. Conversely, expatriates with higher levels of cultural intelligence but lower levels of political skill had the highest levels of job satisfaction. In addition, implications, limitations and suggestions for future research are presented in sequence.. Cultural Intelligence and Job Satisfaction Hypothesis 1 stated that for expatriates, high cultural intelligence is positively associated with job satisfaction. Moreover, the findings of this research were consistent with previous research (Bücker et al., 2014; Yesil, 2013; Sims, 2011). In accordance with past researches, Livermore (2011) explained that when individuals with high cultural intelligence face culturally diverse circumstances, their cultural intelligence helps them to easily solve them; People would feel less fatigued wheb they acquire higher personal satisfaction. Furthermore, people with higher personal satisfaction will motivate themselves to work harder, and they will feel more energetic while doing their job. This study also indicates an important result: if expatriates can acquire job satisfaction, they can enhance sustained communication in cross-cultural interactions (Bücker et al., 2014). In other words, cultural intelligence would enhance expatriates’ cross-cultural interaction ability such as collaboration, communication and problem solving, thereby increasing job satisfaction. 39.

(47) Political Skill as Moderator Hypothesis 2 indicates that political skill moderates the positive relationship between cultural intelligence and job satisfaction. Figure 4.1 indicates differences in the adaptation rate wherein expatriates with different levels of political skill need a different pace to react to cross-cultural interactions with people and the environment; they will spend less time persuading themselves to judge cultural differences and are good at knowing how to observe people’s reactions and determine how to respond to them. Moreover, they are good at observation and use their communication skill to deliver messages to their supervisors, such as their purpose or what they want, so that they might have a great opportunity to get job satisfaction (Harris et al., 2009). In other words, expatriates with higher cultural intelligence acquire and deliver messages smoothly and effectively in different cultural settings and afterwards make sensible judgments in response to the new cultural context (Earley & Ang, 2003). For this reason, expatriates with higher political skill and cultural intelligence will hesitate to reaction immediately and influence their job satisfaction. In contrast, expatriates with lower political skill spend more time persuading themselves to judge cultural differences; they are not adept at observing people and providing relevant reactions. In other words, expatriates need high cultural intelligence to cultivate them and acquire job satisfaction.. Implications for Research This study makes a valuable contribution to the understanding of cross-cultural relations. The present study pointed out that few studies focus on the specific relationship between cultural intelligence and job satisfaction. Ang et al. (2007) also stated that there is a gap on understanding whether cultural intelligence is correlated with job satisfaction. In this study, 40.

(48) we clarified that cultural intelligence serves as a predictor for expatriate’s job satisfaction in a cross-cultural environment. The finding of this study is consistent with previous researches (Bücker et al., 2014; Yesil, 2013; Sims, 2011). To gain insight into some of the research implications, this study also explored if political skill is a key factor for expatriates facing cross-cultural interactions. Cultural intelligence and political skill can help expatriates to achieve great success at work. This study also provides additional evidence that expatriates with higher cultural intelligence need lower political skill to acquire job satisfaction; in contrast, expatriates with lower cultural intelligence need higher political skill to improve and then obtain job satisfaction.. Implications for Practice This research provides essential suggestions for practice. Whenever expatriates are unfamiliar with another culture, they may offend others inadvertently. To solve this kind of roblem, it is very important for managers to recognize the importance of expatriates’ intelligence and social skill. Expatriates need the ability to adapt to a cross-cultural environment so as to eliminate conflicts and complete their job assignments. Besides, expatriates should also have the ability to communicate with local workers and acquire support from colleagues and supervisors. Ideally, expatriates in the organization should be able to interact smoothly in a cross-cultural context and gain more satisfaction at work. However, not every expatriate can adapt to different cultures in different cultural settings and acquire job satisfaction. Expatriate selection tends to become very important for companies. Baruch (2002) stated that expatriates need to have some qualifications such as intelligence, motivation, adaptability and entrepreneurship. Political skill can serve as a facilitator to 41.

(49) effectively acquire self-worth, enabling individuals to get job satisfaction. Pierce et al. (1989) posit that if organizations can make individuals feel confident about their self-worth and competence, employees will be motivated to perform well at work. Ferris et al. (2007) propose that having political skill leads colleagues to believe in them; they will accumulate all the support from different people. Above all, expatriates with high political skill may have a great opportunity to employ intelligence, motivation, adaptability and entrepreneurship. This study suggests that political skill is a key ability to enhance expatriates’ job satisfaction. Thus, recruiters and managers need to observe applicants; those who have high political skill can be dispatched as expatriate employees.. Limitations of the Study There are some limitations to this study. Firstly, the data on the three variables were gathered from a self-reported questionnaire, which might result in common method variance. To avoid common method variance, the questionnaires were anonymous and the measurements were designed in different scales: the 5-point Likert scale and the 7-point Likert scale. Nevertheless, by conducting Harmon’s single factor test, the largest factor accounted for 12.47% of the variances, which was below the threshold of 50%, illustrating that the study did not have a serious CMV problem with the measurements (Podsakoff et al., 2003). Another limitation is that this study used self-reported questionnaires. This measurement may cause single-source bias. Nevertheless, most social psychology studies indicate that intelligence can be measured through self-reported questionnaires (Ang et al., 2007; Earley & Ang, 2003). Several researchers also state that self-reported measure has been accepted in the 42.

(50) cultural intelligence measurement (Ang et al., 2007; Earley & Ang, 2003). The measurements used in the present study might, consequently, be more relevant in interpreting actual intelligence.. Finally, purposive sampling, rather than random sampling, was conducted to collect the data. With limited time and resources, it was not easy to conduct random sampling, so the generalizability of the results might be an issue. Secondly, with online questionnaires and snowball sampling, it was difficult to confirm whether participants in our research samples were qualified. Third, only a group of white-collar expatriates comprised the sample in the present study. Other expatriates, such as blue-collar expatriates, were not included in this study.. Future Research Suggestions The results of this study provide some directions for future research. Firstly, this study was conducted in Taiwan. To enable comparative research, we hope future researches will employ different nations. Second, there are a number of research questions that arose from our study that currently await future investigation. Although the relationship between cultural intelligence and job satisfaction has been researched to some extent in previous studies (Bücker et al., 2014; Yesil 2013; Sims, 2011), life satisfaction has rarely served as a predictor of job satisfaction. Further research could also focus on different outcome variables, such as life satisfaction, job performance or productivity. Furthermore, researchers could examine the antecedents of cultural intelligence, such as personality and language ability. The results of this study also indicate that political skill negatively moderates the relationship between cultural intelligence 43.