Some further research on microfames of unilateral force are done based on Liu
44
and Chiang (2008), which proposed that a basic frame can be further divided into Microframes with a finer specification of role-internal features, that is, the role-internal specifications of frame elements inherited from the basic frame.
In the present study, semantic attributes, frame elements, collocations, and event structures are used in determining various microfames of unilateral force. There are thirteen microframes, namely Make, Compel, Hinder, Prevent, Discontinue, Terminate, Counter, Comply, Help, Support, Do_For, Allow, and Let alone frame.
Diagram (4) shows the relation in layers.
Diagram (4): The Microframes under each Basic Frame
3.5.1 Microframes under Forcing Basic Frame
A small portion of Mandarin SIVs does encode the result of force competition.
Verbs in Forcing basic frame are divided into Make microframe and Compel microframe depending on whether the manipulation is successful or not.
Make microframe (successful manipulation)
迫使pòshĭ “to make,” 強使 qiángshĭ “to make,” 逼使 bīshĭ “to make,”
Compel microframe (attempted manipulation)
逼迫bīpò “to force,” 強迫 qiángpò “to force,” 逼 bī
“to force,” 強逼qiángbī “to force,”
Lemmas in Make microframe, being similar to “Strong manipulation verbs”
defined by Givon (1993), tend to signal the end point realization of a social interaction. However, verbs in Make microframe are not the direct translation of the English verb make. Givon (1993) proposed that the complement VP of the English verb make has to be a bare verb (i.e. He made me leave/*to leave/*leaving) because make in English denotes a “co-temporal” and “co-spacial” relation between the main
45
and the secondary events. Lemmas in Make microframe in Mandarin, even though most of the time sharing the same co-temporality, can sometime denote two events that are relatively not so co-temporal as shown in (86) below. The complement VP is marked by the irrealis marker 要 yao. Moreover, lemmas in Make microframe often collocate with adverbs such as 一直/不斷/一次又一次 yìzhí/búduàn/yícì yòu yícì
‘again and again.’
On the other hand, lemmas in Compel microframe are similar to the weak manipulation verb force in English (Givon 1993). They tend to denote a durative force manipulation by collocating with progressive aspectual markers such as 正/正在/在 zhèng/zhèngzài/zài or being modified by a duration phrase such as 三天 sāntiān
‘three days.’
(3) [他/Antagonist]一次又一次[迫使/Forcing][青少年/Agonist][要加入幫派 /Target act]，造成許多社會問題。
tā yícì yòu yícì pòshĭ qīngshàonián yào jiārù bāngpài zàochéng xŭduō shèhuì wèntí
3sg again and again POSHI teenager to join gang cause many social problems
‘He continuously makes teenagers join the gang, which causes many social problems.’
(4) [老媽/Antagonist][逼/*迫使/Forcing][弟弟/Agonist]（逼/*迫使了)[三天 /Duration]，他還是不打掃自己的房間。
lăomā bī/*pòshĭ dìdi bī/*pòshĭ le sāntiān tā háishì bù dăzăo zìjĭ de fángjiān Old mom BI younger brother BI-LE three day 3sg still NEG-clean his own room
‘(My mom) has forced (my) younger brother for three days, but he is still not going to clean his own room.’
3.5.2 Microframes under Try to stop Basic Frame
There are two microframes under Try to stop basic frame: Hinder frame and Prevent frame. They are separated based on what event structure they encode. Lemma in Hinder frame denotes social interaction in which an entity (who does a certain act) or an event is potentially hindered whereas lemma in Prevent frame encodes social interaction in which only an event is avoided from happening. This speciality makes verbs under Prevent frame obligatorily take a complement VP.
Hinder Microframe 阻止zŭzhĭ “to restrain,” 阻擋 zŭdăng “to block,” 阻礙 zŭài
46
(entity/event oriented) “to hinder,” 制止zhìzhĭ “to stop,”遏止 èzhĭ “to stop,” 遏制 èzhì “to stop,” 阻撓zŭnáo “to hinder,”攔阻 lánzŭ “to hinder”
Prevent Microframe (event orentited)
預防 yùfáng ‘to prevent,’ 防止fángzhĭ “to prevent,” 避免 bìmiăn “to avoid”
(5) a. [平地人/Antagonist][阻止/Try to stop][山地居民/Agonist][獨立自主 /Intended act]。
píngdìrén zŭzhĭ shāndì jūmín dúlì zìzhŭ
plain men ZUZHI mountain resident independent
‘People who live in the plain stopped the mountain residents from being independent.’
b. [平地人/Antagonist][阻止/Try to stop][山地居民/Agonist]。
píngdìrén zŭzhĭ shāndì jūmín
plain men ZUZHI mountain resident
‘People who live in the plain stopped the mountain residents.’
(6) a. [政府/Antagonist][積極/Manner][防止/Try to stop][醫生/Agonist][偽造 民眾就醫記
錄/Intended act]。
Zhèngfŭ jījí fángzhĭ yīshēng wěizào mínzhòng jìuyījìlù
Government actively FANGZHI doctor forge the public medical record ‘The government actively prevents the doctor from forging medical records
of the public. (Whether or not the prevention is successful is unspecified.)’
b. *[政府/Antagonist][積極/Manner][防止/Try to stop][醫生/Agonist]。
Zhèngfŭ jījí fángzhĭ yīliáojīgòu wěizào mínzhòng jìuyījìlù Government actively FANGZHI doctor
*‘The government actively prevents the doctor.’
3.5.3 Microframes under Stopping Basic Frame
Microframes under Stop basic frame are Discontinue frame and Terminate frame. They are distinguished according to whether the terminated situation is restartable or not. Discontinue frame indicates social interaction that is interrupted in the middle but is restartable at some point whereas Terminate frame encodes the end or the termination, which is completely stopped and not restartable.
Discontinue Microframe Event: <+restartable>
中止zhōngzhĭ “to discontinue,” 中斷 zhōngduàn “to discontinue,”
Terminate Microframe 終止zhōngzhĭ “to terminate,” 結束 jiéshù “to end,” 終
47
Event: <-restartable> 結zhōngjié “to terminate,”
(7) Preverbal modification:
a. Antagonist < {暫時/意外/無預警/臨時}[ADVP]< * < Agonist
[大英國協/Antagonist]暫時[中止/*終止/Stop][辛巴威會籍/Agonist]，等其 他領袖評估情勢，決定是否延長期限。
Dàyīngguóxié zhànshí zhōngzhĭ/*zhōngzhĭ Xīnbāwēi huìjí děng qítā lĭngxìu pínggū qíngshì juédìng shìfŏu yáncháng huìqí
The Great Britain temporary ZHONGZHI/*ZHONGZHI the Republic of Zembabwe membership wait other leaders evaluate situation decide if extend time
‘The Great Britain temporary discontinued the membership of the Republic of Zembabwe and waited for other leaders to evaluate the situation so as to decide whether the discontinuance is extended or not.’
b. Antagonist < {永遠/永久}[ADVP] * < Agonist
如果菲國再背信，[我方/Antagonist]將永遠[終止/*中止/Stop][中菲航約 /Agonist]。
rúguŏ Fēiguó zài bèixìn wŏfāng jiāng zhōngzhĭ/*zhōngzhĭ zhōngfēi hángyuē If the Philippines again break promise our side will forever
ZHONGZHI/*ZHONGZHI Sino-Phillippines navegation contract
‘If the Phillippines breaks the promise again, our side (our government) will end the Sino-Phillippines navegation contract for good.’
3.5.4 Microframes under Counteractive forcing Basic Frame
There are two microframes, namely Counter frame and Comply frame under the Counteractive forcing basic frame. Verbs in Counter frame denote social interactions that are more intense and effert-taking whereas verbs in Comply frame encode social interactions that require less effort. Verbs in Counter frame are more verbal and are often modified by adverbs such as 極力/奮力 jílì/fènlì ‘to strive/to spare no effort’
whereas verbs in Comply frame are more adverbial. Besides, with their verbal status, verbs in Comply frame are quite often modified by 只好/習慣zhĭhăo/xíguàn ‘to have no way but/to be used to.’
Counter Microframe (effort-taking reaction) (Verb status: more verbal)
反抗fănkàng “to resist,” 抵抗 dĭkàng “to resist,” 抵 擋dĭdăng “to withstand,” 抗拒 kàngjù “to resist,” 抵 拒dĭjù “to resist,” 拒抗 jùkàng “to resist”
Comply Microframe 聽從tīngcóng “to obey,” 順從 shùncóng “to submit
48
(reaction with less effort) (Verb status: less verbal)
to,” 遵從zūncóng “to comply with”
(8) Preverbal modification:
a. Re-acting force < {極力/奮力/拼死/公然} [ADVP]<*< Prior force < (, Accompanying act)
[猶太人/Re-acting force]拼死[反抗/*聽從/Counteractive forcing][希特勒 的迫害 Prior force]。
Yóutàrén pīnsĭ fănkàng/*tīngcóng Xītèlè de pòhài
Jewish people to brave death FANKANG/*TICONG Hitler-DE persecution ‘The Jewish people fight against the persecution of Hetler with their lives.’
b. Re-acting force < {習慣/只好/默默}[ADVP]<*< Prior force < (, Accompanying act)
[他/Re-acting force]習慣[順從/?反抗/Counteractive forcing][太太的每一 句話/Prior force]，[連個氣兒也不敢出一聲/Accompanying act]。
tā xíguàn shùncóng/?fănkàng tàitài de měi yíjùhuà linage qìer yě bùgăn chū yìshēng
3sg is used to SHUNCONG/?FANKANG wife-DE every word even one word also NEG-dare say
‘He is used to obey every words from his wife and not even dares to say a word (to against her).’
(9) Adverbial modifier: * (地) < VP
受不了牙痛的折磨，[孩子/Re-acting force]只好[順從/*反抗 /Counteractive forcing+nom]地就診。
shòubùliăo yátòng de zhémó háizi zhĭhăo shùncóng/*fănkàng di jìuzhěn cannot bare toothache-DE torture child has no way but
SHUNCONG/*FANKANG to see a doctor
‘The child had no way but submissively/*resistantly went to see a doctor for the unbearable torture from the toothache.’
3.5.5 Microframes under Assisting Basic Frame
There are three subtypes of help in Mandarin depending on which force-exerting party gets to perform the Target act. The three subtypes indicate three microframes under Assisting basic frame, namely, Help frame, Support frame, and Do_For frame. In Help frame, the Benefiter provides a direct enablement, so the Target act is performed by both Benefiter and Beneficiary. Verbs under Help frame usually collocate with a light verb 進行 jìnxíng (i.e.大家對災民進行協助) or
49
undergo nominalization by collocating with 提供tígōng “to provide” (i.e.大家對災 民提供協助).
Verbs under Support frame, on the other hand, denote a more indirect assistance exerted by the Benefiter in a more abstract fashion. These verbs undergo nominalization by collocating with 表示biăoshì ‘to express’ (i.e.黨員對他表示支持) They also, to a large degree, remain their verbal status modified by adverbs such as 精神上jīngshénshàng ‘in spirit,’ or 原則上 yuánzéshàng ‘in principle’ (i.e.我精神上 /原則上支持你創業).
Finally, verbs under Do_For frame as discussed in 4.2 behavor more like Co-verbs indicating a favor-doing situation (i.e. 護 士 幫 病 人 打 針 ). No nominalization is found.
Help Microframe (Target act by Beneficiary) Verb status: <±nom>
支持zhīchí “to support,” 扶持 fúchí “to support,” 扶 植 fúzhí “to support,” 資助zīzhù “to patronize,” 贊助 zànzhù “to sponsor,” 補助bŭzhù “to subsidize,”幫 bāng “to help,” 幫忙 bāngmáng “to help,” 幫助 bāngzhù “to help,”協助 xiézhù “to assist”
Do_For Microframe (Target act for Beneficiary) Verb status: <-nom>
幫bāng “to help,”替 tì ‘to substitute,’為 wèi ‘for/for the sake of’
As shown above, there are some overlappings of the lemmas (i.e. 幫). It takes more information from the context to differentiate three microframes from one another, which corresponses to our argument that Mandarin depends highly upon collocations to create a certain context in which minor semantic differences are conveyed or interpreted.
3.5.6 Microframes under Letting Basic Frame
There are two microframes under Letting basic frame: Allow frame and Let alone frame. They are divided based on whether the Target act is on going or not when the Grantor comes into impingement. Allow frame denotes social interactions in which an authoritative entity (usually limited to a human, a political organization, a theory, or a law) grants permission to the Grantee (usually human) so that he/she can
50
set foot to perform a Target act after getting the permission. Let alone frame, on the other hand, encodes social interactions in which an entity (usually a human) decides to let go so that the Grantee (usually human) can carry on his or her Target action that is usually on going before the Grantor’s inpingement.
Allow Microframe (Target act to do)
Grantor:[+authoritative]
Register:[+formal]
允讓yŭnràng “to allow,” 允許 yŭnxŭ “to allow,” 准 許zhŭnxŭ “to permit,” 同意 tóngyì “to agree to,”
Let alone Microframe (Target act to continue) Grantor:[+unspecified]
Register:[+unspecified]
放任 fàngrèn “to let,” 放縱 fàngzòng “to indulge,”
縱容 zòngróng “to connive,” 任憑 rènpíng “to let alone without restriction,” among others.
(10) Grantee < {未經/未獲/先經/得到} < Grantor < */*+nom < ({就/才}) <
(Target act)
[他/Gtantee]未經[作者/Grantor][同意/*放任/Letting]就[將小說出版/Target act]。
tā wèijīng zuòzhě tóngyì/*yŭnxŭ jìu jiāng xiăoshuō chūbăn 3sg NEG-pass author TONGYI/*YUNXU JIU BA novel publish
‘He published the novel without getting the permission/*noninterference of the author.’
(11) Grantor < * < Grantee < (Target act) < {不管/不理}
[政府/Grantor][放任/*允許/Letting][官員/Grantee][貪汙/Target act]不管，
zhèngfŭ fàngrèn/*yŭnxŭ guānyuán tānwū bùguăn
government FANGREN/*YUNXU the official to corrupt without interference
‘The government leaves/*allows the official corruption alone without interference.’
3.5.7. Overview of the Frames
This section summarizes the frames introduced in previous sections. With a focus on Unilateral primary frame, there are six basic frames (Forcing, Try to stop, Stopping, Counteractive forcing, Assisting, and Letting) and thirteen microframes (Make, Compel, Hinder, Prevent, Counter, Comply, Help, Support, Do_For, Allow, and Let alone). Table (6) below summarizes the frames.
51
Archiframe Primary frame Basic frame Microframe Social Interaction UNILATERAL Forcing Make
Compel Try to stop Hinder
Prevent Stopping Discontinue
Terminate Counteractive forcing Counter
Comply
Assisting Help
Support Do_For
Letting Allow
Let alone BILATERAL See Lai (2011)
Table (6): Overview of the Frames in Mandarin Social Interaction Frame