Learning Motivation - 斯伯丁字母拼讀教學法對國小低年級學生英語拼字能力與學習動機影響之個案研究

In the study, the researcher aimed to investigate whether the Spalding Method could improve second grader’s English learning motivation as well. A number of factors have been shown to influence students’ learning effectiveness in the second or foreign language learning.

Among the various learning factors, motivation, an essential variable in second language learning achievement (Xu & Gao, 2014). Learning motivation refers to the process whereby goal-directed activity is instigated and sustained (Schunk, Pintrich, & Meece, 2008). It involves goals that provide impetus for direction to action and requires physical or mental activities that is instigated and sustained. Researchers consistently have found a vital relation between children’s motivational orientation and both learning and academic performance (Ginsburg & Bronstein, 1993; Froiland, 2011). As Weiner (1990, p. 618) noted, “Motivation is

often inferred from learning, and learning usually is an indicator of motivation for the educational psychologist.” Therefore, the researcher would like to explore the definition of learning motivation, integrative and instrumental orientations, intrinsic and extrinsic Motivation, parental encouragement, and anxiety.

2.3.1 Definitions of Learning Motivation

Motivation has been widely regarded as one of the key factors that influence the rate and success of second/foreign language learning, which not only effectively helps second language learners persist in learning process, but also efficiently promotes their language proficiency as well (Brown, 2007). It has been conceptualized in various aspects including inner forces, enduring, behavioral responses to stimulus, and sets of beliefs and affects (Stipek, 1998). Behavioral theories regard motivation as an increased or continual level of responding to stimulus and forms reinforcement or reward. According to Schunk, Pintrich, and Meece (2008), they view motivation as a change in the rate, frequency of occurrence, or form of behavior response as a function of environmental events and stimulus. Hence, behavioral theories imply that teachers should arrange environment so students can response properly to stimulus; in contrast, cognitive theories emphasize individuals’ thoughts, beliefs and emotions influence motivation. Individuals are conscious of something that they are trying to attain and avoid. Cognitive theories stress the causal role of mental structures and the processing of information and beliefs (Schunk, Pintrich, & Meece, 2008). That is, teachers need to consider how much mental process may manifest them in the classroom and how instructional and social variables affect students’ thoughts and behaviors. Gardner and Lambert (1972) are the early scholars who build the foundation of the theory of L2 learning motivation. They have done a good deal of research examining motivations for language learning using a social

psychological framework and establish "socioeducational model" (Gardner & Lambert, 1972;

Gardner & Lalonde, 1985). Gardner’s (1985) socioeducational model of second language acquisition focuses on language learning in the classroom and stresses that motivation is important in second language acquisition. Socio-psychologist such as Gardner and Lambert hypothesized that the second language learner's attitudes towards the linguistic-cultural community of the target language cause an impact on second language learning indirectly through motivation.

In addition, motivation plays an essential role in determining achievement in second language learning. Gardner (1985) found motivational components such as motivational intensity, attitudes and desire towards learning the language, had a positive influence on performance in language learning. It is not only one of the major determinants for students taking advantage of the opportunity to learn foreign language, but also a vital force responsible for promoting or hindering intercultural communication and affiliation (Gardner

& Lalonde, 1985). Dörnyei (1994) also extended motivational framework and accorded with such variables. In his model, he divided them into three motivational levels. The language level referred to integrative and instrumental motivation; the learner level involved individual difference motives such as need for achievement and self-confidence; motivation explained why people selected a particular activity, how long they were willing to persist in it and what effort they invested in it. These three components of motivation correspond to goals, the initiation and maintenance of learning effort (Dörnyei, 2003). Moreover, the learning situation level includes motivation associated with various aspects of the language class situation and contains course-specific, teacher-specific, and group-specific components (Dornyei, 1994;

Gardner, Masgoret, Mihic, &Tennant, 2004). As a result, without sufficient motivation, even individuals who have the most remarkable abilities cannot achieve long-term goals. On the

other hand, high motivation can make up for considerable deficiencies both in one's language aptitude and learning conditions (Csizer & Kontra, 2013).

2.3.2 Types of Learning Motivation

(1) Integrative and Instrumental Orientations

There has been growing interest in the area of second language learning motivation in the past few decades. It is further proposed that motivation is supported by two other effective components and attitudes toward the learning situation. These form an integrative motive that promotes language learning. Gardner and Lambert (1972) suggested that motivation could be divided into two types: integrative motivation and instrumental motivation. The basic assumption was based on the finding that learner attitudes toward the linguistic-cultural community of the target language influenced success in second language achievement (Gardner & Lalonde, 1985). Integrative motivation referred to positive attitudes and feelings toward the target language group. It was the motivation to integrate oneself within the culture of the L2 group and became a part of that society. Gardner and Lambert (1972) indicated that interactively motivated learners could easily achieve goals in second language achievement because they were active learners. Clément, Smythe, and Gardner (1978) also showed that learners who had integrative orientation for language learning were less likely to fail or drop out. Instead, they were more likely to continue on with language study.

On the other hand, instrumental motivation referred to the potential utilitarian gains of second language proficiency. It was the motivation to acquire a language as a means for attaining instrumental goals , such as getting a better job or higher salary, reading technical material and translation (Gardner & Lambert, 1972). Gardner and Masgoret (2003) hypothesized that differentiated instrumental goals, which were associated with the utilitarian

values of speaking another language, from integrative goals, which expressed students’ wish to learn the language in order to become integrated into the target language culture (Gardner

& Masgoret, 2003). Gardner and Lambert (1972) indicated that having an instrumental motivation was less effective for a language learner. It was not based on the personality of a learner. Accordingly, a learner with instrumental motivation might not expend as much effort to achieve cumulative progress over time.

(2) Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation

Based on the current motivational research, both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation plays a substantial role in learning achievement. Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation are time and context dependent. Intrinsic motivation is the motivation to engage in activity for its own sake, whereas extrinsic motivation is the motivation to engage in activity as a means to an end. The difference between intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation is that intrinsic motivation originates is the desire to engage in an activity solely for the enjoyment that it proves;

however, extrinsic motivation occurs when learners are motivated to perform a behavior or engage in an activity in order to earn a reward or avoid a punishment (Deci & Ryan, 1985;

Ryan & Deci, 2000). Learners who are intrinsically motivated typically engage in achievement behavior for the pleasure and interest in learning; whereas, extrinsically motivated learners are motivated by their interest to external source and rely on guidance from outside sources (Lange & Adler, 1997). On the other hand, intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation also relate closely that they are almost inseparable (Institute for Academic Excellence, 1997). Intrinsic motivators invariably relate to such external factors as socially reinforced values and learner's desire to achieve some end in the material world.

Similarly, extrinsic motivators usually involve learner's drives, aspirations, and self-concept (Oldfather, Dahl, National Reading Research Center, & National Reading Research Center,

1995). The vital thing is that in order to be successful, learners must persist with their own desire to discover the world and expand their understanding (Institute for Academic Excellence, 1997).

Intrinsic motivation is defined as “the doing of an activity for its inherent satisfaction rather than for some separate consequence. When intrinsically motivated a person is moved to act for the fun or challenge entailed rather than because of external products, pressures, or rewards (Ryan & Deci, 2000, p.56).” A learner is intrinsically motivated to engagement in an activity because it allows the learner has the opportunity to exercise and experience his/her capacities. The learner feels connected with others and seems to feel in control of their actions.

Moreover, the fun or challenge for an intrinsically motivated learner is to seek out an activity that provides the opportunity to feel competent and self-determined (Shillingford & Karlin, 2013). Ryan and Deci (2002) stated intrinsic motivation represented a prototype of self-determined activity, in that, when intrinsically motivated, people engaged in activities freely, being sustained by the experience of interest and enjoyment. Thus, intrinsic motivation was the most self-determined form of academic motivation (Vallerand & Ratelle, 2002).

According to Gardner (1985), a highly motivated individual would (1) enjoy learning the language, and (2) want to learn the language, (3) strive to learn the language. That is, intrinsically motivated learners enjoy learning and want to learn more about the content.

Furthermore, intrinsic motivation was regarded to be highly self-determinant in the sense that the reason for reading was linked to the individual’s positive feelings while reading (Seven &

Engin, 2008).

Students’ intrinsic motivation can be affected by challenge, curiosity, control, and fantasy.

Activities are intrinsic motivating when students challenge their skills, ideas or information that are discrepant from their present knowledge and beliefs (Schunk et al., 2008). In order to

faster the intrinsic motivation necessary for success, teachers can accomplish this by explaining the purpose of assignments to students, allowing for individual projects and improving student accountability in order to monitor their progress (Shillingford & Karlin, 2013). Furthermore, optimal challenges, positive feedback, and freedom from demeaning evaluations are all predicted to facilitate intrinsic motivation (Deci & Ryan, 1985). Attritional feedback directs the learners to recognize specific causes of their success, promoting repeated use of practices effective for learning (Falout, 2012). As a result, in order to facilitate students’

intrinsic motivation in the elementary classroom, teachers must integrate autonomy, mastery and purpose into the curriculum design. Also, it is necessary to encourage students to share their own learning expectation and goals related to the course content.

In contrast, extrinsic motivation refers to the performance of an activity in order to attain a desired outcome rather than an interest in the activity itself (Deci & Ryan, 1985). Extrinsic motivation includes the behaviors performed in the absence of self-determination and thus which can only be prompted by external contingencies (Jovanovic & Matejevic, 2014).

Children with extrinsic motivation prefer easy tasks over difficult ones, work to please or get good grades instead of satisfying their curiosity. They are dependent on teachers for direction and are considered to have negative consequences for achievement (Lange & Adler, 1997). It also relates to a wide variety of behaviors where the goals of actions extend beyond those inherent in the activity itself. Therefore, there are behaviors that are engaged in as a means to an end and not for their own sakes. One example is that a student studies very hard just to get high marks or praises from his/her teachers.

Research has indicated that students become less intrinsically motivated to learn and less likely to engage in critical thinking when rewards are attached to performance on tests (Amrein & Berliner, 2003). The way to reward students for their achievement is teaching

them that learning is a chore (Kohn, 1993). The reward that teachers should offer to students is pride and satisfaction that intrinsically comes from doing a job well (Haywood, Kuespert, Madecky, & Nor, 2008). Students who work hard to strive towards a reward and then never achieve their goal and reward, the experience is likely to be heartbreaking and detrimental to the students that don’t receive the reward because it will be perceived as failing. Using rewards at all is a risky proposal and teachers need to ask themselves if it is worth the risk.

The reward structure generally operating in schools today gives only a minority of student’s external rewards for learning. Besides, students receiving these rewards are the most likely to be intrinsically motivated already. Currently, a high school diploma does not motivate most students to exert effort to learn. The diploma does not differentiate between various levels of student performance or between difficult and less difficult curriculum. It has no real significance in the occupational world (Brunsma, Khmelkov, McConnell, & Orr, 1996).

Moreover, sometimes teachers perceive that rewards change students’ behavior and increase their motivation to learn, but students perceive the opposite (Malala, Major, Maunez-Cuadra,

& McCauley-Bell, 2007). Rewards can be used to produce positive, negative, or no effects at all on intrinsic motivation. It all depends on a multitude of variables, which are continually being debated over and over (Cameron, 2001).

(3) Parental Encouragement

In general, parents play a significant role in fostering learner’s academic motivation and success. Motivation is enhanced when parents state expectations as suggestions, give emotional encouragement and acknowledge learner’s feelings and needs. Parental involvement is very crucial in attaining the desired literacy outcomes of English learners.

Researchers have identified the effect of parental involvement on numerous areas of development and have found that it is related to learner’s learning motivation, academic

achievement (Ginsburg & Bronstein, 1993; Kaplan Toren, 2013; Knollmann & Wild, 2007) and specifically in reading (Loera, Rueda, & Nakamoto, 2011). These findings suggest that learners whose parents are involved in their education seem to do better across various developmental domains. (Harper & Pelletier, 2010) In addition, studies have pointed to important differences in parenting styles which have various impacts and consequences on children’s cognitive and emotional development (Baumrind, 1971; Ginsburg & Bronstein, 1993; Maccoby & Martin, 1983). General parenting styles and parental behaviors that are directly relevant to children's academic performance relate to children's motivation and learning effectiveness (Ginsburg & Bronstein, 1993). Maccoby and Martin (1983) suggested four different parenting styles relating to parental control, responsiveness, communication and nurturance.

1. Authoritarian parents: Parents are characterized by high control, low responsiveness, and low nurturance. They demand absolute obedience and have high expectations and strict rules of their children.

2. Authoritative parents: Parents establish clear rules and guidelines and limits for behavior. However, they not only allow children to express opinions and act independently, but also help them be capable of accomplishing tasks themselves in order to build up strong self-esteem and self-confidence.

3. Permissive-indulgent parents: Parents place rarely discipline and demands on their children because they have relatively low expectations of maturity and self-control. They often seem more like a friend, rather than a parent.

4. permissive-indifferent parents: Parents are characterized by low responsiveness, few expectations or demands, and little emotional involvement in their children’s lives. These parents are often indifferent or even completely neglectful to their children.

Research has showed that parental behaviors and family styles which control learner's independent thinking and behavior are associated with a more extrinsic motivational orientation and poorer academic performance (Ginsburg & Bronstein, 1993). Learners whose parents use pressure and discipline or offer gifts and contingent rewards to induce them to learn harder, may turn to think that schoolwork is aversive. They are forced or enticed to do and thereby lose confidence in their own abilities (Bronstein, Ginsburg, & Herrera, 2005).

Moreover, research even found that parents’ expectation was the most crucial component of their involvement.

(4) Language Anxiety

Affective aspects have been regarded as important as language aptitude in language learning success (Gardner & Lambert, 1972). Emotions are individually experienced and continuously regulate the motivational energy foreign language learners. Foreign language anxiety, which is defined as the worry and negative emotional reaction arouses when learning or utilizing a second language (Young, 1999). It is one of the most significant factors affecting the learning of a foreign language. It is also recognized as an affective factor in foreign language learning and normally discussed alongside other individual learner differences (Gardner & MacIntyre, 1994). According to Gardner and MacIntyre (1994) and Suleimenova (2013), anxiety can be further defined as not only a feeling of uneasiness, apprehension, nervousness, and worry associated with an arousal of the automatic nervous system, but also the distress or tension of the mind caused by fear of danger or misfortune.

To analyze anxiety in terms of social contexts and educational environment, Horwitz (1986) established three related performance anxieties, including communication apprehension, test anxiety, and fear of negative evaluation. Communication apprehension is regarded as the anxiety to communicate with people, to talk in front of others, and also known

as stage fright, and to talk in groups. Test anxiety is explained as the fear of failing to perform.

Fear of negative evaluation is defined as the learner’s expectation to be evaluated negatively by others in any kind of situations such as, oral exams or in-class presentations. Many researchers have also studied on language anxiety and suggested a variety of strategies to cope with this multifaceted dilemma. Silk et al. (2013) showed when parents conveyed anxiety to their children during a threatening situation, children might potentially increase their anxiety. Hashemi (2011) indicated that instructors should create situations and environment where students can feel successful in using English and avoid setting up the activities that increase the chances for the students to fail. Therefore, in order to make the classroom become a safe and less anxiety-provoking place, teacher should play a decisive role in creating a friendly, informal and learning-supportive environment. Moreover, instead of interrupting and correcting students when they are communicating was recommended, teachers have to supply positive ways to correct and construct feedback on errors, (Hashemi, 2011). Hence, it is necessary that language teachers should not only recognize that anxiety is a major cause of students lack of success in the new language, but also assist them to cope with the feelings of unease and discomfort and language anxiety.

2.3.3 Empirical Studies of English Learning Motivation

In the field of EFL learning, understanding the source and development of students’

learning motivation is very important for educational purposes. Most studies have demonstrated that learning motivation was one of the key factors to promote successful language learning (Bahous, Bacha, & Nabhani, 2011, Dörnyei, 1994; Dörnyei, 2003).

Moreover, Burden (2004) found that students should realize that the purpose of acquiring the target language is not for studying purposes only, but also for effective communication.

Dorneyi (1994) and Ghaith (2003) also indicated that as learners saw practical purposes in learning the language, they were motivated even if the language was not significant in the learner's community.

In the last decade, many researchers have been devoted to explore Taiwanese students’

motivation toward English learning. They claimed that learning motivation was highly relevant to English learning (Chang, 2012; Huang, 2010; Hsu, 2005; Lai, 2007; Yu, 2013).

However, some EFL students tended to have learning anxiety and lower learning motivation, especially in writing and speaking. According to Lin’s (2008) study, the situation of business vocational high school students’ foreign language anxiety and motivation was higher leveled, but the English learning strategy was lower leveled. Kuo (2011) discovered that based on the investigation of junior high school students’ learning motivation, English use, willingness to communicate in English and English achievement in their English learning, students tended to be more confident to communicate in English with others in listening and reading skills. It seemed that students had anxiety of English writing and speaking. Chien (2013) found that junior high school students appeared fine dimension of English anxiety, but needed to be reinforced in English learning motivation and learning attitude. Their degree of English anxiety was influenced by grades, residing regions, cramming experiences, and intramural

在文檔中斯伯丁字母拼讀教學法對國小低年級學生英語拼字能力與學習動機影響之個案研究 (頁 42-55)