斯伯丁字母拼讀教學法對國小低年級學生英語拼字能力與學習動機影響之個案研究

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(1)國立臺中教育大學教育學系課程與教學碩士在職專班論文. 指導教授：曾榮華. 博士. A Case Study on the Impact of the Spalding Method of Phonics on Second Grade Elementary School Students’ Spelling Proficiency and Learning Motivation. 斯伯丁字母拼讀教學法對國小低年級學生英語拼字能力與學習動機影響之個案研究. 研究生：汪羿汝撰. 中華民國 104 年 7 月.

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(3) Acknowledgements I would like to express my profound gratitude and sincere regards to my adviser, Dr. Jung-Hua, Tseng for his patient guidance when I was conducting the research. His insight and attitude in doing the academic inspired me a lot. He also constantly shared his professional knowledge and suggestions with me. I’ll always keep what he had taught in my mind forever. I would also like to give particular thanks to my committee members, Dr. Cheng-Ji, Lai and Dr. Li-Yi, Hsu. They provided valuable feedbacks and useful critiques to polish my study. It’s my honor to be Dr. Cheng-Ji, Lai’s student again after graduating from the Department of English. I’m blessed to him for giving me precious guidance and valuable advice. He always supported me with insightful suggestions and sincere encouragement whenever I encountered difficulties. Moreover, I’m blessed to meet Dr. Li-Yi, Hsu for providing me with insightful suggestions expressed through warm words so I could examine my writing. I’m indebted to all the professors in the Graduate Institute of Curriculum and Instruction in NTCUE for their instruction and inspiration. I’m also thankful to Dr. Pey-Ru, Yen for giving me the opportunity to investigate the research topic. Besides, I would like to give special thanks to my classmates: Wan-Qi, Yi-Sin, Chia-Chi, Hsiao-Ling, Yen-Chi, Chiu-Jui, Wen-Ching, Hsiu-Ling, Yu-Chan, Yen-Tzu, Chin-Fang, Pi-Chi, Wei-Ting, Chih-Wei and Yuan-Hsiu. Being their friend is the most happiness thing in the world. With their support and accompany, the learning process became meaningful and cheerful. Last but not least, I’m most grateful to my parents and my brother whose love and support were the most powerful energy for me to accomplish my master study. I did my best and made it finally. In the future, I’ll put what I learned into practice in order to enrich English teaching. I would like to dedicate this study to all of my beloved..

(4) 謝辭能重溫一個學生的快樂是幸褔的。一路走來，回首這兩年的研究生旅程，心中充滿無限的感激與感動，有著教授、老師的指導、家人的支持、同事以及朋友的鼓勵，讓我堅持到最後，順利完成畢業論文，並為進修研究所生涯畫下了一個完美的句點。首先要誠摯地感謝我的指導教授曾榮華博士，在論文寫作過程中不斷地給予指導與鼓勵，讓我有信心面對困難，以順利完成研究。他對學問的嚴謹、認真的態度，真是值得我學習，在此獻上無限的謝意與感激。同時，也感謝口試委員賴政吉博士和徐琍沂博士，能在百忙之中給予論文修正的寶貴建議，讓我順利完成論文修正，讓本論文更加嚴謹與完整。很榮幸在英語學系畢業後再度成為賴政吉教授的學生，非常感謝他提供這個具價值、挑戰性且我也很有興趣的研究主題，以及不斷地從旁指導與提醒，讓我受益良多;也很感謝徐琍沂教授總是溫柔地提出精闢見解與建議，使得本論文更臻完善。另外，感謝 Crista 老師的教學分享、支持與配合，才能讓研究活動順利進行。再來要感謝林彩岫教授、楊銀興教授、游自達教授、葉憲峻教授、張淑芳教授、顏佩如教授、陳延興教授與郭至和教授等諸位師長殷勤教誨與盡心指導，豐富了我們的學術涵養，開啟不同的視野與思路;特別感謝顏佩如教授的牽線與引領，給予我論文撰寫的方向;除此之外，也要感謝我的好同學婉綺、怡欣、嘉琪、曉玲、彥淇、秋瑞、文菁、秀玲、玉蟬、嬿滋、金芳、碧琪、偉婷、志偉和園修，謝謝您們一路的相伴與扶持，我會永遠記得這些難忘的日子和彼此深厚的情感。最後，要感謝我親愛的父母和弟弟，永遠在背後做我堅強的後盾，因為有您們的支持、鼓勵與包容，我才能盡全力地朝自己的目標勇往邁進，並順利完成研究所的學業。今於論文完成之際，謹以此篇論文，分享給每一位關心與支持我的師長、家人、同事與朋友們，衷心感謝您們！有您們真好！.

(5) A Case Study on the Impact of the Spalding Method of Phonics on Second Grade Elementary School Students’ Spelling Proficiency and Learning Motivation Adviser: Jung-Hua, Tseng Graduate student: I-Ju, Wang. Abstract The significance of an effective phonics instruction in English classes can’t be underestimated since it is aimed to equip students with basic principles of phonics, articulatory rules, letter-sound correspondences, and also key to English learners’ spelling and reading competence. The purpose of study is to introduce the Spalding Method of Phonics and to assess whether it is effective in terms of students’ spelling proficiency and learning motivation in Taiwanese context. In the Spalding Method of Phonics, students were taught all the possible sounds of 70 phonograms, together with phonics rules, and high-frequency words. It is assumed that, employing these learned skills, students will be more likely to pronounce, spell, and write almost every word they encounter. However, up to date, no research has been conducted to investigate the impact of the Spalding Method of Phonics instruction in Taiwan. The participants of the study included 26 Taiwanese second-graders, an American certified Spalding Method trainer and a Taiwanese homeroom teacher. Both qualitative (e.g., classroom observations, videotaping, interviews) and quantitative (e.g., Morrison-McCall Spelling Scale, Attitudes toward Learning English Scale for Children) research methods were used in this study. The study yielded the following results. First, after the instruction of Spalding Method of Phonics, these students showed significant improvement on their spelling proficiency. Second,. I.

(6) their learning motivation of English also increased. It was concluded that the Spalding Method of Phonics had affected Taiwanese students’ English spelling proficiency, greatly enhanced students’ phonics awareness, and increased English learning motivation. Keywords: Spalding Method of Phonics, phonics, spelling proficiency, learning motivation, case study. II.

(7) 斯伯丁字母拼讀教學法對國小低年級學生英語拼字能力與學習動機影響之個案研究. 摘要字母拼讀法為培養英語聽、說、讀、寫能力的主要方式，透過有效的字母拼讀教學，可以培養學生具備基礎的英語字母拼讀原則、發音規則、字音對應關係、拼字及閱讀能力。本研究旨在介紹斯伯丁字母拼讀法(Spalding Method of Phonics)的教學內容和步驟，並探討運用斯伯丁教學法於字母拼讀教學，對於提昇學生英語拼字能力、學習動機之成效。透過斯伯丁字母拼讀教學法學生可以學會 70 個 phonograms 所有可能的發音、字母拼讀規則和高頻字彙。假使學生學會並且能運用這些知識，就可以根據發音來拼寫出每一個接觸過的單字。然而，現階段在臺灣尚無論文研究斯伯丁字母拼讀教學法對英語學習的效益。本研究為個案研究，研究對象為某臺中市全英語課後才藝班 26 位二年級學生、一位取得斯伯丁教學法證照的美籍教師和一位台灣籍導師。研究者同時使用質性研究和量化研究來進行資料的收集、分析與統整。研究工具包含課堂觀察、錄影、訪談、拼字能力測驗以及英語學習動機問卷。本研究之主要發現摘要如下：一、經過斯伯丁字母拼讀教學法後，學生的英語拼字能力顯著提昇。二、學生的英語學習動機同樣顯著增加。根據以上的研究結果，研究者建議國小英語教師可將斯伯丁字母拼讀教學法運用在英語發音與拼字的教學上，有效幫助學生提昇其拼字能力和音韻覺識，進而建立對英語學習的自信和喜愛。最後根據本研究發現，對斯伯丁字母拼讀教學法的運用提出建議，亦指出本研究的限制與不足，以做為未來教學及相關研究上之參考。關鍵詞: 斯伯丁字母拼讀教學法、字母拼讀法、拼字能力、學習動機、個案研究. III.

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(9) TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION …………………….....…...……………1 Background of the Study ………...………………………...…...………..…1 Purpose of the Study ………...……………………...…………...…..….......5 Research Questions …………...……………………………...…...……...…5 Definition of Terms ………………………………………...…...…..………6 Significance of the Study …………………………………......….…………7 CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW ……………………...…………9 2.1 Phonics Instruction ……...…………………..…..………...…...…….…9 2.2 The Spalding Method ………………………..…..………...….....….…15 2.3 Learning Motivation .……………………………………...………..…30 CHAPTER THREE RESEARCH DESIGN ...……………...………………43 3.1 Research Design .………..………………………………...…………..43 3.2 Participants ...……………..…...…………………...…………...……..54 3.3 Data Collection Procedures .………...……………………...….......….58 3.4 Data Analyses ........................................................................................61 CHAPTER FOUR RESULTS ………………...……………………..………65 4.1 Teaching Procedures in the Spalding Method of Phonics ..…….……..65 4.2 The Impact of the Spalding Method of Phonics on Learners’ Spelling Proficiency ...………………………...……………..………..92 4.3 The Impact of the Spalding Method of Phonics on Learners’ English Learning Motivation …………….….………….……………..94. V.

(10) CHAPTER FIVE DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION …...……..………101 5.1 The Summary of the Research Results .…………………...………....101 5.2 Discussions of the Research Results ..…………...…………......……104 5.3 Pedagogical Implications to the Spalding Method of Phonics in Taiwan Context .………...……………...……...…………….....…….112 5.4 Limitations of the Study ……………………………………..............115 5.5 Suggestions to Future Research ………………………………...……116 REFERENCES ...............................................................................................119 APPENDICES ………………………………………...…………………..…137 Appendix A Students’ Interview Questions .…............………………......137 Appendix B Morrison-McCall Spelling Scale List 1 ……………...…….138 Appendix C English Learning Motivation Questionnaire (English Version) …….……………................................…..139 Appendix D English Learning Motivation Questionnaire (Chinese Version) .…....................……………........….........141 Appendix E English Learning Motivation Questionnaire (Back Translation Version) ….....…………....……..….........143 Appendix F Course Schedule of English Immersion Program ..............…144 Appendix G Phonics Lesson Plan …………..…………...………........…145 Appendix H Spelling Lesson Plan ……………………………..…...……148 Appendix I Bingo Sheet ...…………………………….........................…151. VI.

(11) LIST OF TABLES Table 3.1 Data- Research Question Comparison …………….……...…………44 Table 3.2 The Morrison-McCall Spelling Scale Evaluation ……..….…………50 Table 3.3 The Expert List of the Expert Content Validity ..................................52 Table 3.4 The Analysis of Expert Content Validity of the Adapted Motivation and Attitudes toward Learning English Scale for Children ...............53 Table 3.5 Profile of the Participants …………………………………........…...57 Table 3.6 The Coding of Qualitative Data …………………...………...……....62 Table 4.1 Phonograms and Phonics Rules of the Spalding Method …….……..70 Table 4.2 Paired Samples t-test Results of the Students in Spelling Test ….......93 Table 4.3 Paired Samples t -test Results of the Students in Motivational Questionnaire ...……………………………….…………………......95. VII.

(12) LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2.1 Clock Face and Six Basic Strokes …..........…….……….....……….20 Figure 3.1 Research Timeline for Conducting the Study …………....…….…..59 Figure 4.1 Teaching Procedures of the Instructor ...……………......……..……66 Figure 4.2 The Front and Back Sides of Phonogram Flash Card e .……..…….69 Figure 4.3 The Front and Back Sides of Phonogram Flash Card a ………...….74 Figure 4.4 The Clock Face …………………………...………………….…….77 Figure 4.5 Demonstration of Identifying the Phonograms …………………….83 Figure 4.6 The Front and Back Sides of Phonogram Flash Card ai and ay …...84 Figure 4.7 Dictation …………………………………...………………....…….88 Figure 4.8 Phonogram Bingo ………………………...…………....…….…….89 Figure 4.9 Phonogram Memory ……………………...…………...……..…….90 Figure 4.10 Phonogram Walk …..…………………….…………...……..…….91 Figure 4.11 Students’ Spelling Test Scores of Pretest and Posttest …...…...…..93 Figure 4.12 Students’ Motivational Questionnaires Scores of Pretest and Posttest ..………………………………………...…....95. VIII.

(13) CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION Developing students’ basic English skills (i.e., spelling, speaking, listening, reading, and writing) is the primary goal of elementary school English teaching. It is important to build strong fundamentals in phonics simply because the systematic nature of English spelling involves sound-to-spelling correspondences and other spelling rules (Cronnell, 1975). Adams (1990) indicated that phonics can practically build learners’ alphabetic principles that further aid their spelling and reading capacity. Hence, how to help students develop their knowledge and fundamentals of sound-spelling relationships is the vital issue in this study. Furthermore, the Spalding Method of Phonics is an alternative way to teach phonics. This study would like to examine the impact of the Spalding Method of Phonics on Taiwanese second grade elementary students’ spelling proficiency and learning motivation. In this chapter, the background of the study would be explained, subsequently the purpose of the study would be described. Next, the research questions, the definitions of the terms and the significance of the study would be further introduced.. Background of the Study 1.1 The Importance of English Language in Taiwan The 21st century is known as the era of globalization and this concept of a global community is transforming the world. In order to communicate with people from this global community, English has become an international language of the world. For the last decades, the importance and popularity of English language has never perished. For Taiwanese, the aim. 1.

(14) of learning English is to enable learners to become globally literate, foster international awareness, and stay internationally competitive with global counterparts. Therefore, developing English communication skills is an imperative task. In response to societal expectations, English education has been carried out from the third grade at elementary school since 2005 in Taiwan (Ministry of Education, 2008). The Taipei City Government has extended English education to the first grade of elementary school since 2007. It shows that English is a leading factor in the educational success of students who are learning English from an increasingly younger age. It’s also self-evident that the emphasis of English education is apparent throughout Taiwan. Moreover, Ministry of Education (2008) clearly stated that the main goal of English education in elementary schools is to promote students’ basic communication skills (e.g., listening and speaking) and then enhance sub-skills (e.g., reading and writing). Furthermore, according to General Guidelines of Grade 1-9 Curriculum, English is included in the field of language arts, which covers not only listening, speaking, reading and writing of the language, but also the basic communicating competence, cultural and social norms.. 1.2 The Key of English Instruction: Phonics Instruction Phonics involves a body of information that needs to be mastered and applied in acquiring literacy. Swaby (1984) stated that reading is a continuous process that ranges from code emphasis (phonics and word analysis) to meaning emphasis (comprehension). Thus, basic phonics competence is dependent on learners’ ability to form and recognize letters of the alphabet and to understand how letters are grouped together to make words. However, when students fail to recognize words and are incapable of pronouncing them, they may get frustrated and lose the opportunity to gain benefits from reading. Therefore, helping students. 2.

(15) develop their knowledge and fundamentals of sound-spelling relationships in order to spell and read words is the key point to eventually facilitate their English skills. In Taiwanese official English education, phonics instruction is emphasized as well. As listed in Grades 1-9 Curriculum Guidelines for Elementary and Junior High School Education, published by Ministry of Education (2008), English pronunciation instruction should focus on the components of sounds, practice of syllables, stress sounds and integrate the basic speech sounds into vocabulary teaching appropriately. As a result, two different instructional systems of English pronunciation, K.K. phonetic symbols and phonics are being utilized. Most English teachers have employed K.K. phonetic symbols, designed by Kenyon, J. S. and Knott, T. A. in 1944, as a pronunciation aid. K.K. phonetic symbols are a subset of the larger set of IPA (The International Phonetic Alphabet) symbols, with some specially adapted features for American English. Also, K.K. phonetic symbols are a learning tool to assist learners with difficulties in pronouncing unfamiliar vocabularies by means of looking up the dictionary. There is no doubt that knowing the K.K. phonetic symbols is a huge advantage to teach the correct pronunciation; nevertheless, K.K. phonetic symbols are a large set of symbols different from letters. Learning another alphabet for pronunciation is beyond the capability of most beginning level English learners. They may have a heavy burden to memorize and tend to confuse K.K. phonetic symbols with English letters which look the same but have different sounds (e.g., [e] and letter e). These difficulties may cause learners’ frustration, thereby lowering the effectiveness of K.K. phonetic symbols in teaching speaking and spelling. Accordingly, Ministry of Education (2008) suggested that K.K. phonetic symbols would be better implemented in Junior High School Education when students have already acquired basic listening and speaking competence toward English speech sounds.. 3.

(16) In order to teach English pronunciation effectively, teachers are advised to start with basic principles of phonics and articulatory rules so students can develop the knowledge between letter-sound correspondences and spelling ability (Ministry of Education, 2008). Moreover, phonics can be defined as the conscious, concentrated study of the relationship between sounds and symbols for the purpose of learning to read and spell (Savage, 2011, p. 7). This guideline, on one hand, involves the learning of how to connect sounds of spoken English with letters or groups of letters (e.g., the sound /k/ can be represented by c, k, ck, or ch); and on the other hand, it requires learners to blend the sounds of letters together in order to produce approximate pronunciation of unknown words. Therefore, effective phonics instruction is the vital key for English learners to promote spelling and reading competence.. 1.3 The Spalding Method of Teaching Phonics In the Spalding Method of Phonics, students are taught the sounds of English language (70 phonograms), together with phonics rules and concepts. Meanwhile, phonemic awareness, systematic phonics, high-frequency vocabulary are also taught in spelling. According to The Writing Road to Reading, Spalding (1990) showed that the Spalding Method was of much help to those who need English as a second language because it made the spelling of the language understandable and relatively easy to learn, and the spelling was a key to both good writing and reading of the language. The Spalding Method consists of four elements including spelling, writing, listening and reading comprehension; consequently, students can learn to connect speech sounds to print and begin to write and read almost magically. Spelling, based on sound and symbol awareness for the majority of the English language, is a lead to both good writing and reading of the language. English has 26 letters to from 70 common symbols (phonograms). These are put together to form words. Learning these sounds,. 4.

(17) phonograms, and the rules that develop the use in words will help students master the first step of reading and spelling. Ehri (1987) indicated that teaching beginners to spell phonetically facilitated word reading and the memory for correct spellings of words. Up to date, no research has been conducted to investigate the combined effects of the Spalding Method of Phonics instruction in Taiwan. Since the Spalding Method of Phonics is an alternative way to teach phonics, the study aimed to examine the effectiveness and the impact of its instruction on Taiwanese English learners.. Purpose of the Study The purpose of the study was to assess the students’ learning effectiveness on spelling proficiency and motivational impact of utilizing the Spalding Method of Phonics, involving instructional approaches and procedures in an English Immersion Program in Taiwan. Both qualitative (e.g., classroom observations, videotaping, and interviews) and quantitative (e.g., Morrison-McCall Spelling Scale and Attitudes toward Learning English Scale for Children) research method would be conducted to investigate the impact of the Spalding Method of Phonics instruction on second graders’ spelling proficiency and English learning motivation.. Research Questions This study addressed the following research questions: 1. What are the main teaching procedures in the Spalding Method of Phonics? 2. To what degree does the Spalding Method of phonics have impact on learners’ spelling proficiency? 3. To what degree does the Spalding Method of Phonics have impact on learners’ learning motivation?. 5.

(18) Definition of Terms The Spalding Method of Phonics The Spalding Method of Phonics is a total language arts approach and provides explicit, sequential, interactive, and multisensory instruction in phonics, handwriting, spelling, writing, and reading comprehension. It teaches the saying with the writing of the sounds used in spoken English. Learners are then able to pronounce almost every word they encounter when reading, and are also able to spell and write words they hear. In this study, the American instructor provided oral and written sound-symbol practice by using the phonogram flash cards. She would modeled, and then coached the students to simultaneously say the 70 common sound-symbol relationships (phonograms) along with the phonics rules that governed how they were put together; and further asked them to write down in the spelling notebooks. Hence, the students would learn the sounds as well as the handwriting. Besides, the instructor would ask them to try to present formation of individual letters and how phonics rules apply to spelling words. Furthermore, during oral and written phonogram review and spelling dictation, the instructor would ask the students to practice writing phonograms and spelling words on white boards, quiz papers or spelling notebooks.. Spelling Proficiency Spelling proficiency refers to ability to map speech sounds to the corresponding symbols. It converts the spoken sounds into prints in a correct sequence of letter. In this study, spelling proficiency referred to students’ spelling test scores measured by the Morrison-McCall Spelling Scale (Morrison & McCall, 1951) at the beginning and the end of the semester. The instructor would dictate the spelling words and the students had to spell them correctly. The more words the students spelled correctly, the better spelling proficiency they required.. 6.

(19) Learning Motivation Learning motivation refers to students’ motivation to learn the L2 target language. It can arouse students’ learning interest and enable them to participate in learning more actively. In this study, the Motivation and Attitudes toward Learning English Scale for Children (MALESC), by Carreira (2006), was adapt and administered to the students in order to examine their English learning motivation before and after the instruction of the Spalding Method of Phonics. The questionnaire consisted of 19 items on the questionnaire and the motivational factors included intrinsic motivation, instrumental motivation, interest in foreign countries, caregivers’ encouragement, and anxiety. Moreover, this questionnaire used a four-point Likert scale. The sum of the scores was the results of students’ Englsih learning motivation. Therefore, the higher scores the students achieved, the more learning motivation they enhanced.. Significance of the Study The study provided insights into the contribution of the Spalding Method of Phonics on EFL elementary students’ learning achievement and learning motivation. The goal of the study was to present the significance of spelling proficiency by utilizing the Spalding Method of phonics in EFL teaching. The results of the study should be useful to EFL teachers who are struggling with students’ spelling proficiency or who are trying to use the Spalding Method of Phonics as a way to enrich phonics teaching. The researcher hopes that the study will be able to provide some ideas for EFL teachers to inspire students’ spelling proficiency and learning motivation toward English learning.. 7.

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(21) CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW The purpose of this study was to investigate the impact of the Spalding Method of Phonics on second grade elementary school students’ learning effectiveness on spelling proficiency and learning motivation. Thus, this chapter mainly presented literature review in the concepts of phonics instruction and the rationale for the structure, principles and effectiveness of the Spalding Method of Phonics, followed by the theories and types of learning motivation.. 2.1 Phonics Instruction Phonics is defined as a way of teaching reading that stresses the acquisition of letter-sound correspondences and their use in reading and spelling (National Reading Panel, 2000). It is the clearest connecting link between the vocabulary and printed page. After learning these sound-to-symbol skills, most learners are able to read almost anything within speaking and listening vocabularies. It gives them the key to read words they already know, and the skills to look up words they don’t know, allowing comprehension to happen.. 2.1.1 Definition of Phonics Phonics is the idea that spoken language is made up of sounds, and sounds can be mapped to written letters. It is the instruction about the relationship between speech sounds and letters. It involves understanding the alphabetic principle as well. According to Adams (1990, p. 25), phonics referred to a system of teaching reading that built upon the alphabetic principle, a system of which a central component was the teaching of correspondences. 9.

(22) between letters or groups of letters and their pronunciations. In addition, Jorm and Share (1983) stressed that mastery of letter-sound correspondences was essential for the accurate and efficient recognition of many words, because skill in the application of letter-sound knowledge led children to develop rapid and accurate decoding of phonically regular words. Moreover, children begin to think about sounds in words as they begin to write. The National Reading Panel (2000) considered the knowledge that letters of the alphabet represented phonemes, and that these sounds were blended together to form written words. That is, readers who are proficient in phonics can sound out words they haven't seen before, without first having to memorize them.. 2.1.2 Teaching Approaches of Phonics Phonics emphasizes how spellings of words are related to speech sounds in systematic ways. Understanding phonics and the alphabetic principle can make learning to read and write easier to achieve, but if phonics instruction is inaccurate and confusing, it can make this learning very difficult. When it comes to phonics approaches, two main teaching methods, the explicit and the implicit approach, are widely discussed (Blevins, 2006; Dakin, 1999).. (1) Explicit Approach Explicit approach is the part-to-whole learning of words, known as synthetic phonics instruction (Gunning, 1996). It follows a bottom-up model of learning to read. This approach features an early direct and explicit emphasis on learning letter-sound relationships, blending or synthesizing these elements into whole words (Savage, 2011, p. 119). In explicit phonics instruction, teachers not merely demonstrate learners to learn how to blend sounds to produce a word or an approximate pronunciation of a word based on the following sequence, but blend unfamiliar words in context (Blevins, 2006). Each sound associating with a letter in the word. 10.

(23) is pronounced in isolation and then blends together. Words are also decoded in isolation and both vowels and consonants are sounds individually. Firstly, the teacher shows learners the word cat, points to the letter c, and says that it stands for the sound /k/. Secondly, the teacher then points to the letter a, and say it sounds /æ /. Thirdly, the teacher points to the letter t, and says it stands for the sound /t/. Last, learners are then helped to blend the sounds /k/, /æ /, and /t/ together to get /kæ t/. Therefore, the explicit phonics instruction is orderly, planned, reasonably sequenced, and that gradually builds from simple elements to more complex structures. However, a major problem with this instruction is that it is difficult to produce pure speech sounds in isolation. Gunning (1996) argued that some consonants were distorted because these sounds could not be pronounced without a schwa.. (2) Implicit Approach Implicit approach is defined as analytic phonics instruction or the whole-to-part learning of words. This approach has also been described as a deductive approach, or whole word phonics (Savage, 2011, p. 119). In implicit phonics instruction, the instruction starts with a list of words in which learners need to examine and segment the sounds to discover the similar sounds (Blevins, 2006). Hence, instead of presenting sounds associated with letters in isolation, the teacher states a number of words beginning with the same or similar patterns. For instance, the teacher asks learners to listen to the following words book, baby, and boat. The teacher also writes these words on the board. Then, the teacher encourages learners to perceive the initial consonant that letter b stands for the sound at the beginning of the words book, baby, and boat. As a result, learners can be better internalize the knowledge of sounds in words and construct the principles if they discover the clues about sound-symbol associations by themselves (Blevins, 2006). Nevertheless, Beck and Juel (1995) argued that learners might fail in looking for distinctive sounds among the words without requiring. 11.

(24) segmentation skills. In sum, explicit phonics builds words from single letters, moving from the smallest parts to the whole, whereas implicit phonics teaches the whole words first, moving from the whole to the smallest parts. Although the difference is critical as they have vastly different results, many studies have shown that both explicit phonics approach and implicit phonics approach can contribute significantly to improve learners’ reading difficulties (Adams, 1990; Blevins, 2006; Chall, 1983; National Reading Panel, 2000). Consequently, teacher should often use a combination of both explicit and implicit phonics instruction and help learners learn sound-symbol relationships that they can use in becoming fluent readers and confident writers. The vital thing to remember is that any method that assists learners to unlock words as quickly as possible should be used. Namely, phonics is without doubt the effective instruction that can give learners the power and independence to pronounce unfamiliar words.. 2.1.3 Empirical Studies of Phonics Instruction in Taiwan EFL Context According to Grades 1-9 Curriculum Guidelines for Elementary and Junior High School Education (Ministry of Education, 2008), phonics instruction is emphasized in Taiwanese English education. Therefore, many studies have shown that phonics instruction can assist EFL learners not only in pronunciation proficiency, but also in reading and spelling ability. The related studies about the effectiveness of phonics instruction can be discussed in the following sections.. (1) Benefits on Phonological Awareness Based on Wu’s (2014) study and Chiu’s (2015) study, the experimental group had higher achievement on English word reading, oral fluency and changed their way of learning English. 12.

(25) The training of phonics instruction and phonological awareness could facilitate students’ English capacity on sound-word correlation and accuracy on word pronunciation. Moreover, Wang (2014) mentioned that there was significant progress in the participants’ reading aloud and phonics awareness performance. Namely, the phonics instruction, along with synthetic phonics, phonemic awareness, phonological awareness, sight words reading and letter-sound knowledge could improve students’ reading aloud and phonics awareness performance. Besides, Kuo’s (2011) findings pointed out that the phonics instruction with songs, chants, and nursery rhymes has improved the participants’ phonemic and phonological awareness as well as their sight words reading ability.. (2) Benefits on Spelling Proficiency Furthermore, according to Chiu (2015), Hsieh (2012) and Huang (2011) and Lai (2003), phonics curriculum could significantly improve students’ English writing and spelling abilities. In the aspect of learning methods, students could finally apply the letter-sound correspondence knowledge to spell words, instead of depending on visual impression to recognize words and whole-word memorization to spell words. Chen’s (2009) findings showed that the subjects also improved significantly in spelling tests including word-initial consonants spelling, word-middle vowels spelling and word-final consonants spelling. Lai (2003) suggested that phonics instruction could be integrated into the teaching of English spelling, especially for the remedial learners in the resource program. Also, some conditions should be considered in phonics teaching such as classroom setting, time tabling and class management.. (3) Benefits on Learning Motivation and Attitude As for English learning attitude, some researchers Hsu (2015), Lin (2014) and Chang (2009) indicated that phonics instruction offered an appropriate instruction for teachers. 13.

(26) seeking to help students improve their English learning motivation. It also reinforced them to have a more positive attitude toward spelling words and learning English. That is, English letter-sound correspondences and phonological awareness should be taught in order to prevent students becoming poor readers. They can apply the given rules to overcome difficulties and acquire new words.. (4) Benefits on Remedial Instruction In addition, previous studies (Chang, 2007; Chen, 2014; Lai, 2003; Lai, 2008) used the phonics approach as remedial instruction to teach EFL learners with English learning difficulties in order to promote their decoding and oral reading ability. The results showed that Phonics instruction appeared significant effects on improving the experimental group’s ability of phoneme segmentation and English word reading. Chang (2011) indicated that remedial students made great progress on orthography and word recognition. In particular, most of them have learned to employ the phonics rules to read and comprehend the assigned pictures. Lai (2003) also found that phonics instruction embedded in the underachieving children’s literature successfully and boosted underachievers’ phonological awareness on early literacy skills, and their confidence in English learning. Wang (2014) and Lin (2014) emphasized that most remedial participants felt that they made progress on their reading aloud performance and phonics awareness performance and gained more motivated and confident in English when they could successfully decode the words by themselves. However, as for classroom spelling instruction, some researchers have different opinions toward using phonics along with spelling instruction. Allred (1977) proposed that phonics had limitations, and complete reliance on phonics would cause lots of frustration and confusion in spelling, such as failing to write silent letters. Huang (2013) argued that in the implementation, some students with learning disabilities had difficulties in recognizing similar letters of the. 14.

(27) alphabet, and confused with some alphabet pronunciation. Consequently, it is appropriate to for English teachers to provide students with an effective and instructional phonics approach that can develop their sound-to-symbol knowledge and skills.. 2.2 The Spalding Method Spalding Method, the methodology and educational philosophy of The Writing Road to Reading, was created by Romalda B. Spalding. It is an integrated language approach teaching spelling, reading and writing. According to Spalding Education International (2014), the Spalding Method is a total language arts approach providing explicit, sequential, interactive, and multisensory instruction in phonics, handwriting, spelling, writing, and reading comprehension. Spalding (1990) proposed that the core of the method is teaching the saying with the writing of the sounds used in spoken English so children can learn to combine these sounds into words they know. Also, meaning is well taught with the writing by using new words in the sentences.. 2.2.1 Definition of the Spalding Method In the late 1930s, Romalda B. Spalding worked with an eminent neurologist and brain specialist, Dr. Samuel Orton and devised the Spalding Method to develop children’s literacy skills. Spalding (1990) pointed out that all children deserved the most effective teaching of the basic skills of writing and reading that could be devised. Without these skills, the development of the mind, mental self-discipline and self-education, and a real appreciation of cultural heritage were not possible. Moreover, she believed that the alphabetic code by which English speech sounds were represented in writing must be grasped (Spalding, 1990); hence, she published The Writing Road to Reading in 1956, dealing with the rationales, debates and. 15.

(28) research into communication, education, learning, child development and cognitive skills. The Writing Road to Reading guides teachers and parents through the Spalding Method, a research-based, total language arts approach that provides multisensory instruction in spelling, writing, and reading comprehension in order to help develop critical thinking skills children need for language learning. Furthermore, Romalda B. Spalding established the Spalding Education Foundation (now Spalding Education International) in 1986, a non-profit organization designed to assure consistency of the instruction of the Spalding Method by organizing courses for teachers and contracting with schools, districts, and universities. On the other hand, it is a program to educate teachers as well as parents through the principles and teach strategies responsible for the effectiveness of the Spalding Method. Norsworthy (1999) indicated that the Spalding Method emphasized on building early spelling and handwriting skills. It was a truly integrated language arts program that provided students with a total package for a complete acquisition of English. According to Madison Elementary School District (2014), the Spalding Method incorporated four fundamental elements as follows: 1. Spelling: Learners built a basic speaking and reading vocabulary while learning to understand the articulation rules and concepts of the written language; 2. Writing: Writing reinforced word meanings, applied knowledge of the rules of English and enhanced learners’ critical thinking and reading proficiency; 3. Comprehension: Learners analyzed characteristics that made a piece of writing exemplary and understood that an author wrote for different purposes, fostering a love of reading; 4. Philosophy: The Spalding Method had high expectations of learners, promoting skills such as analysis, synthesis, and evaluation, which enabled learners to think on a higher level.. 16.

(29) In addition, the Spalding Method integrates essential research-based components, including the educational philosophy, and methodology consisting of time-tested principles of learning and instruction. This approach aims to develop students’ spelling, writing and reading proficiency. Besides, due to the integration of scientifically-based content and methodology, the contribution of the Spalding Method had positive effect on diverse students, such as those who are learning English as a second language or with learning disabilities. It is used with great effectiveness in Australia, Canada, Central America, Europe, Singapore, Taiwan and the United States (Spalding Education International, 2014). According to Spalding (1990, p. 24), the teaching of phonics, the analysis of the sounds, and the composition of words towards the Spalding Method properly belonged in teaching of written spelling. Children learn a foundational set of sounds (phonograms) and commonly combine them in words. That is, they learn the articulatory principles to combine phonograms in spelling, using Spalding's specially constructed list of words to compile by frequency. Moreover, English has 70 common phonograms (26 letters and 44 fixed combinations of two, three and four letters). The learning of the spelling words by writing them from dictation connects the written symbols to their spoken sounds. Spalding (1990, p. 27) also pointed out that, “Each student hears himself say each sound while he uses his mind in saying it and in directing his hand to write it. He sees what he has written as he then reads it. No other way can fix sooner or more securely in his memory the words he can write and read at a glance, thus building his sight vocabulary.”. Furthermore, Norsworthy (1999) observed that the Spalding Method imparted the knowledge and principles of how our written language worked as early and efficiently as possible, so that students could move on freely in other areas of literacy.. 17.

(30) 2.2.2 Principles of the Spalding Method According to Spalding (2005), the instructional design of the Spalding Method is based upon widely accepted principles in the following eight domains, including phonemic awareness, feature recognition, letter recognition, sound-symbol relationships (phonograms), spatial placement, vocabulary (lexical process), sentence structure (syntactic process), and text comprehension (semantic process).. (1) Phonemic Awareness Phonemic awareness is the ability to focus on and manipulate individual sounds (phonemes) in spoken words. It is essential to learn and read in an alphabetic writing system, because letters represent sounds or phonemes (Griffin & Olson, 1992). A phoneme is the smallest unit of sound in a language that holds meaning, combining to form syllables and words. For example, the word hat has three phonemes: /h/, /æ /, and /t/. There are 44 phonemes in the English language which consist of vowel and consonant sounds. Acquiring phonemic awareness is important because it is the foundation for spelling and words recognition skills. Phonemic awareness refers to the ability of sounds’ recognition, segmentation and blending which can be represented by letters (Ashmore, Farrier, Paulson, & Chu, 2002). It is very likely to develop as a consequence of learning phonics, reading and writing. Furthermore, phonemic awareness includes more complex tasks which are the abilities of segmentation, blending, deletion and phonemic segmentation insertion (Yopp, 1992). It also represents the abilities of hearing and manipulating the individual sounds in spoken words (Chard & Dickson, 1999). Hence, successful learning in phonics deeply involves with the phonemic awareness ability. In 2000, the National Reading Panel identified phonemic awareness as a key area of literacy instruction (National Institute of Child Health. 18.

(31) and Human Development, 2000). Moreover, children who have phonemic awareness are able to segment a word into phonemes in order to write and blend phonemes then to read a word. With the knowledge of letter-sound relationships, children can come up with an approximate spelling of a word or an approximate pronunciation, which must be checked with context and meaning cues in order to make sense of what is being read (Chapman, 2003). According to Spalding (2005), learners are explicitly taught phoneme manipulation tasks such as blending, isolating, segmenting phonemes and identifying beginning, medial, ending sounds, as well as substituting phonemes in spoken words. Besides, they are also taught the symbols that represent the speech sounds. With strong phonemic awareness, learners can easily show the ability to hear rhyme, blend and segment phonemes and find the different sounds in a set of words.. (2) Feature Recognition Feature recognition refers to the ability to distinguish vertical, diagonal and horizontal lines, and curves. Spalding (1990) stated that many teachers and parents fail to realize the importance of teaching the correct formation of the letters from the very start of teaching the written language. Thus, students need to be familiar with the distinctive features of each letter so that they can fluently recognize the written letters. In the Spalding Method, the instructor uses a legible clockface and six basic strokes to help students learn the handwriting. There are six features to write the 26 manuscript letters that are made of the clock face, or parts of it, and straight lines (see Figure 2.1).. 19.

(32) Figure 2.1 Clock Face and Six Basic Strokes. (3) Letter Recognition Letter recognition is one of the foundation skills for reading. Children become more literate by being surrounded with print and observing people interact with print in a social context (Carr & Dodd, 2003). In order to recognize the abstract form of a letter, children acquire to analyze and translate the features of the printed letters. The process of reading involves relating pronunciation and meaning to printed symbols, and of combing meaning of groups of words into a thought (Glunt, 2000). Knowledge of letters as well as phonological awareness must be introduced. Therefore, building an understanding of phonemes is essential to learning how to read an alphabetic language (Atterman, 1997). However, some letters are harder for students to learn than others, which make themselves to ambiguous interpretations such as d-p-b-q, s-z, and m-n (Laurita, 1988). Thus, in the Spalding Method, explicit and clear handwriting instruction in combining features into manuscript letters is followed by practicing forming lower-case letters in daily written phonogram reviews. Teachers should spend more time helping students analyze the individual feature of letters.. (4) Sound-Symbol Relationships (Phonograms) Knowledge of letter-to-sound associations allows learners to not only decode printed. 20.

(33) words, but also construct the spellings of words in their spoken vocabulary. Some existing research has pointed to several factors that may influence learners’ ability to connect letters and phonemes, including the characteristic of the letter’s name, the existence of alternative mappings, and the properties of the phoneme itself (Francis, Mouzaki, Tincoff, Treiman, & Rodriguez, 1998). Certainly, the phonogram approach is not a complete reading or spelling program, or even a complete phonics program; besides, it’s a definite help in decoding (Fry, 1998). When coupled with adequate letter-sound instruction, phonological awareness training leads to improve word decoding (Guillot, Lee, Schuele, & Spencer, 2008). Also, letter-sound recall may be measured by asking learners to say the sound this letter makes, indicating a written letter. It requires learners to discriminate a letter form visually, recognize it, retrieve the sound of the letter, and articulate that sound (Carr & Dodd, 2003). According to Spalding (2005), teachers model, then coach children to simultaneously say and write the 70 common sound-symbol relationships. From the beginning, teachers provide daily oral and written phonogram practice until automaticity is achieved.. (5) Spatial Placement The process of spatial placement enables learners to recognize or anticipate where particular letters are likely to be located (Franham-Diggory, 1992). The knowledge enhances learners’ ability to spell and read. According to Spalding (2005), learners are taught to expect certain letters and letter combinations to occur or not occur in specific places. For example, they are taught that the letter y most frequently shows up at the ends of words; the letter ai, oi, and ui do not occur at the end of English wards.. (6) Vocabulary (Lexical Process) The lexical process enables the reader or listener to access those meanings, including both understanding of vocabulary and the morphology of language (Farnham-Diggory, 1992).. 21.

(34) Hence, morphology instruction plays an essential role by providing learners with all ability levels and enhances access to word reading as well as word meaning. Morphological skill has been found to be a good predictor of vocabulary knowledge, even after phonological processing and word reading skills are statistically controlled (McBride-Chang, Wagner, Muse, Chow, & Shu, 2005). Moreover, learners who are able to decompose words into their constituent parts and use morphological relatedness among words have been projected to learn approximately two to three more new words per day than if they cannot engage in any morphological problem solving (Anglin, 1993). Kieffer and Lesaux (2008) also asserted that if English learners in the intermediate elementary grades “lack the awareness of derivational morphology that their native English speaking peers have acquired through greater exposure to English oral and written language, this may be a source of reading difficulty (Kieffer & Lesaux, 2008, p. 787).” In addition, word production is influenced by word frequency and neighborhood density as well. Also, high-frequency words are produced more easily than low-frequency words (Mainela-Arnold, Evans, & Coady, 2010). According to Spalding (2005), high frequency words are the fountain for vocabulary instruction. Students should learn the meanings of these words as well as word parts in order to extend through use of quality literature in the daily reading lessons and extensive independent reading.. (7) Sentence Structure (Syntactic Process) Syntax refers to the aspect of language which forms the bridge between the intentions and meaning the learner wishes to express and how, through the speech signal, these intentions and meanings are realized (Menyuk, 1976). In order to understand a piece of text, McBain (2011) stated learners need to have a basic understanding of the meaning of the words in the syntax and context which it is being read. That is, phonetic awareness is a basic. 22.

(35) skill to decode texts. Learners have to deal with what is quite often a whole new set of circumstances relating to syntax, grammar and contextual analysis that they may not have encountered before or may be unfamiliar with (McBain, 2011). In the Spalding Method, students learn how the English language works by the instruction and rules for spelling, syllable division, pronunciation and grammar. It enables students to connect writing (spelling) with speech sounds (pronunciation) accurately and fluently (Norsworthy, 1999).. (8) Text Comprehension (Semantic Process) According to Horiba (2013), in order to acquire successful comprehension of a text, readers should not only recognize words, analyze sentences to extract propositions, but also encode textual information, together with inferences generated from relevant general knowledge. He also indicated that text comprehension draws on many different language skills (Horiba, 2013). These include word reading skills, language skills (grammar, semantics and pragmatics), working memory, background knowledge, inferential processing and comprehension monitoring (Cain & Oakhill, 2006). The integration of text input with relevant background knowledge has the potential to facilitate reading comprehension (Burgoyne, Whiteley, & Hutchinson, 2013). According to Spalding (2005), learners are explicitly taught five cognitive strategies (mental actions) in order to understand the meaning of the text they read. She mentioned that text comprehension included “monitoring comprehension and the identification of unfamiliar words, phrases, or sentences; making connections both written the text and with prior knowledge while reading; making predictions based upon prior knowledge and details already gathered from text; reformatting of text details to categorize information; and summarizing information to confirm stated or derive implied main ideas. (Spalding, 2005, p. 7)”. 23.

(36) 2.2.3 Effectiveness of the Spalding Method In current study, the study aimed to investigate whether the Spalding Method of Phonics could improve the spelling proficiency and learning motivation of second grade elementary school students. According to Spalding (1990), the Spalding Method consisted of three components of instruction, including spelling, writing, and reading. Therefore, the researcher explored the effectiveness of spelling, writing and reading proficiency for enhancing learning achievement on critical early literacy skills.. (1) Effectiveness of Spelling Proficiency Spelling is an integral part of reading, writing, listening and speaking. Learners acquire the skill as they use language for real purpose. Namely, spelling is an important component because it teaches the students how to read. Estes, Hendersor and Stonecash (1972) pointed out that misspellings reflected knowledge of word form. Baluch and Danaye-Tousi (2006) also indicated that pronouncing a word according to its spelling was the most effective strategy for learning to correct spelling. The following are the developmental process of spelling knowledge in understanding the relationship between letters and sounds (Gentry &Gillet, 1993; Medrano & Zych, 1998; Hill, 1999). 1. Pre-phonetic Spelling (Age Two to Three) Children use written language such as pictures, numbers and other symbols to represent letters as they explore the relationships between written and spoken words. 2. Semi-phonetic Spelling (Age Four) Children have basic understanding of sound-symbol relationships and begin to write formed letters of alphabet and string and realize letters correspond to sounds, presented by the initial sound or a final sound. However, they cannot always match correct sounds to letters.. 24.

(37) 3. Phonetic Spelling (Age Five) Children develop spelling consciousness so that they can copy spellings from environmental prints and dictionaries. They are able to write words using an almost perfect match of letters and sounds. Also, particular spelling of sounds can occur in a self-formulated style of spelling. 4. Transitional Stage (Age Six to Seven) Children begin to use a range of visual strategies such as common letter patterns and internalize the spelling pattern by rote recall. Besides, they use the spelling instruction to combine with purposeful writing and promote their spelling accuracy. 5. Independent Spelling (Age eight to up) Children become more proficient in using both visual and auditory strategy approach, for instance, common letter patterns, phonics, and words learned by sight. Besides, they rely more on visual cues to decide whether the word looks right or there are other spelling alternative. According to Spalding (2005), the spelling components of the Spalding Method include three sections: phonograms, vocabulary, and spelling/language rules. Phonograms are the written form of the sounds used in the English language. In English, there are 26 letters of the alphabet, but there are 70 phonograms that represent 45 English sounds. Students learn these sounds by looking at flash cards which show the phonogram and repeat the sound back and write it. Moreover, vocabulary will be taught by writing the Ayers list (the thousand most frequently used words) into a spelling notebook. Students will also learn 29 language rules that are simple and easy to comprehend. These rules serve as a foundation for writing. That is, the students say the sounds of words before, while, and after they write words on paper in order to internalize the high frequency words and skills to sound out unknown words. 25.

(38) (Farnham-Diggory, 1990). As a consequence, the systematic and explicit Spalding Method of Phonics instruction can significantly improve students’ word recognition, spelling, and reading comprehension.. (2) Effectiveness of Writing Proficiency Handwriting is not an isolated activity; instead, it is a complex perceptual-motor skill with regard to the maturation of cognitive and motor skills. Norsworthy (1999) indicated that students learn to write using one set of symbols in order to read and spell by using a different set of symbols. Namely, manuscript writing is taught first as it most closely represents the print in a book rather than an isolated part of the language arts. Besides, students who learn to write are also learning to spell and read. Since the letter recognition is one of the most critical skills for early readers' success, having difficulty with the handwriting can cause a damaging impact on early reading achievement (Kuhl & Dewitz, 1994). According to Dobbie and Askov (1995), handwriting is the individual expression of a learner’s developing reading-writing skills. Berninger et al. (2006) also found that handwriting is not a purely motor or visual activity. It is not merely language by hand, sharing common processes with other kinds of language (listening, speaking and reading), but also some distinct processes that are unique to writing. Hence, mastering handwriting is very significant for students, as it places the earliest constraints on writing development. If students fail to form letters with a minimum of speed and legibility, they cannot translate their ideas into written texts (Bara & Morin, 2013). The Spalding Method stresses the handwriting teaching so students can see letters formed correctly from the beginning. Besides, this method builds the strong sensory link between the voice and the hand. According to Norsworthy (1999, p. 22), the sequence of hearing and seeing, saying and writing the phonograms is the procedure by which students are. 26.

(39) directly taught sound/symbol relationships and the sequential combining of sounds to make words. During handwriting instruction, students can practice with the high-frequency words. The goal enables students to work their way up from composing sentences and paragraphs so as to write stories, plays, poems, and research reports. Therefore, to support the progression, writing lessons should focus on types of writing, attributes and structure of writing.. (3) Effectiveness of Reading Proficiency Instruction in handwriting and spelling precedes the introduction of reading. Research has mentioned the important of fluent word recognition and how a text’s structure influences the meaning drawn from it (Anderson, Hiebert, Scott, & Wilkinson, 1985). Nassaji (2003) mentioned that readers read by first decoding the words, combining their meanings to form phrases, then sentences, and finally constructing the meaning of the whole text in a very linear manner. He proposed that reading is a multivariate skill and deals with complex combination and integration of a variety of cognitive, linguistic, and nonlinguistic skills. It involves in decoding print and encoding visual configurations to high-level skills of syntax, semantics, and discourse, and to still higher-order knowledge of text representation and the integration of ideas with the reader’s global knowledge” (Nassaji, 2003, p. 261). Goodman (1970) also stated that in order to promote the reading proficiency, learners were able to use syntactic and semantic cues to such a considerable extent that they needed to grasp minimal graphic cues in many cases. Thus, reading needs to be embedded in writing and both reading and writing need to be interwoven into word processing environment so the goal of literacy can perpetuate (Wepner, 1987). Reading is not a single factor process. Chall (1983) viewed reading as a complex of abilities and skills that change with development. The developmental characteristics can be divided into six parts, from Stage 0 (pre-reading) to Stage 5 (mature and skilled level of. 27.

(40) reading) as follows (Chall, 1983; Hall & Moats, 1999). 1. Stage 0 (up to Age 6) It is a pre-reading stage. Learners learn some simple concepts of reading and writing, such as reading signs, writing one’s name, giving the names of the letters and discovering the world of print from billboards, cereal boxes, and the like. 2. Stage 1 (Grade 1 and Beginning Grade2) It is the first stage of reading. Learners acquire the relationship between spoken sounds in words and the alphabetic principles in order to recognize speech sounds or phonemes, sound out (decode) words in print and read simple texts. 3. Stage 2 (Grade 2 and Grade3) It is the stage of expansion and consolidation. It consolidates what has learned in Stage 1. Learners become automatic in reading simple and are familiar with texts to gain fluency and confidence. 4. Stage 3 (Grade 4 and Grade8) It is the beginning of higher-order learning and thinking-skill acquisition. Learners are no longer learning to read; instead, they use reading as a tool for learning new knowledge, thoughts, experiences and information. 5. Stage 4 (High School) Learners acquire to read widely from a board range of complex materials, both expository and narrative. Topics in textbooks are treated in greater depth with a variety of viewpoints. Study skills and practice in efficient reading are beneficial at this stage. 6. Stage 5 (Age 18 and Above) Learners acquire to deal with more than one set of facts, various theories, multiple viewpoints and critical reading abilities, then form knowledge from reading on a higher level. 28.

(41) of abstraction. They construct their own viewpoint based on their experiences and background knowledge. In the present study, the students were between Stage 1 (grade 1 and grade2) and Stage 2 (grade 2 and grade3), which constituted a learning to read stage. At this point, they were ready to make the important transition from learning to read to reading to learn (Carnine, Silbert, Kame'enui, & Tarver, 2009, p. 13). To sum up, after accepting the Spalding Method of Phonics from the instructor, the students would acquire phonological recoding skill and relation between printed words (letters) and spoken words (sounds). Furthermore, with the basic decoding skills, students could not only improve their spelling and writing proficiency, but also integrated basic decoding elements, sight vocabulary, and meaning context in the reading of simple, familiar stories and selections.. 2.2.4 Empirical Studies of the Spalding Method Bitter and White (2010) completed four-year study from 2006-2007 through 2009-2010 by Arizona State University to evaluate the effectiveness of the Spalding Method in teaching reading to children from various background. There were 11 diverse Arizona schools were involved in the study of K-3 classrooms, consisting of over 1,000 students each year. This four-year study compared reading achievement of general education students trained in an explicit, multisensory, structured of the Spalding Method with general education students trained in conventional reading programs. Both control and experimental students received instruction in the five National Reading Panel research-based components. According to Bitter and White (2010, p. 31), the assessment was designed to assess students’ achievement in reading, language arts, mathematics, science, social studies, vocabulary, spelling, and other areas. The result of the study was that over the four years, experimental group students. 29.

(42) showed higher mean values on each administration of DIBELS (Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills) and measured to demonstrate an average medium effect (0.54) on students’ achievement. Experimental students in the four-year cohort scored highest (average effect size 0.78). Therefore, the possible explanation was that after the Spalding Method instruction, the experimental program integrated explicit, multisensory, structured language arts instruction with research-based components of skilled reading. To sum up, the study has proven that the Spalding Method not only demonstrated significant learning gains in reading skills, but also enabled students to get more involved in the Spalding programs. However, there hasn’t been any research which aims to investigate the implementation and effectiveness of the Spalding Method on elementary school students in Taiwan. Therefore, it is necessary for the researcher to examine the impact of the Spalding Method of Phonic on learning effectiveness of Taiwanese students.. 2.3 Learning Motivation In the study, the researcher aimed to investigate whether the Spalding Method could improve second grader’s English learning motivation as well. A number of factors have been shown to influence students’ learning effectiveness in the second or foreign language learning. Among the various learning factors, motivation, an essential variable in second language learning achievement (Xu & Gao, 2014). Learning motivation refers to the process whereby goal-directed activity is instigated and sustained (Schunk, Pintrich, & Meece, 2008). It involves goals that provide impetus for direction to action and requires physical or mental activities that is instigated and sustained. Researchers consistently have found a vital relation between children’s motivational orientation and both learning and academic performance (Ginsburg & Bronstein, 1993; Froiland, 2011). As Weiner (1990, p. 618) noted, “Motivation is. 30.

(43) often inferred from learning, and learning usually is an indicator of motivation for the educational psychologist.” Therefore, the researcher would like to explore the definition of learning motivation, integrative and instrumental orientations, intrinsic and extrinsic Motivation, parental encouragement, and anxiety.. 2.3.1 Definitions of Learning Motivation Motivation has been widely regarded as one of the key factors that influence the rate and success of second/foreign language learning, which not only effectively helps second language learners persist in learning process, but also efficiently promotes their language proficiency as well (Brown, 2007). It has been conceptualized in various aspects including inner forces, enduring, behavioral responses to stimulus, and sets of beliefs and affects (Stipek, 1998). Behavioral theories regard motivation as an increased or continual level of responding to stimulus and forms reinforcement or reward. According to Schunk, Pintrich, and Meece (2008), they view motivation as a change in the rate, frequency of occurrence, or form of behavior response as a function of environmental events and stimulus. Hence, behavioral theories imply that teachers should arrange environment so students can response properly to stimulus; in contrast, cognitive theories emphasize individuals’ thoughts, beliefs and emotions influence motivation. Individuals are conscious of something that they are trying to attain and avoid. Cognitive theories stress the causal role of mental structures and the processing of information and beliefs (Schunk, Pintrich, & Meece, 2008). That is, teachers need to consider how much mental process may manifest them in the classroom and how instructional and social variables affect students’ thoughts and behaviors. Gardner and Lambert (1972) are the early scholars who build the foundation of the theory of L2 learning motivation. They have done a good deal of research examining motivations for language learning using a social. 31.

(44) psychological framework and establish "socioeducational model" (Gardner & Lambert, 1972; Gardner & Lalonde, 1985). Gardner’s (1985) socioeducational model of second language acquisition focuses on language learning in the classroom and stresses that motivation is important in second language acquisition. Socio-psychologist such as Gardner and Lambert hypothesized that the second language learner's attitudes towards the linguistic-cultural community of the target language cause an impact on second language learning indirectly through motivation. In addition, motivation plays an essential role in determining achievement in second language learning. Gardner (1985) found motivational components such as motivational intensity, attitudes and desire towards learning the language, had a positive influence on performance in language learning. It is not only one of the major determinants for students taking advantage of the opportunity to learn foreign language, but also a vital force responsible for promoting or hindering intercultural communication and affiliation (Gardner & Lalonde, 1985). Dörnyei (1994) also extended motivational framework and accorded with such variables. In his model, he divided them into three motivational levels. The language level referred to integrative and instrumental motivation; the learner level involved individual difference motives such as need for achievement and self-confidence; motivation explained why people selected a particular activity, how long they were willing to persist in it and what effort they invested in it. These three components of motivation correspond to goals, the initiation and maintenance of learning effort (Dörnyei, 2003). Moreover, the learning situation level includes motivation associated with various aspects of the language class situation and contains course-specific, teacher-specific, and group-specific components (Dornyei, 1994; Gardner, Masgoret, Mihic, &Tennant, 2004). As a result, without sufficient motivation, even individuals who have the most remarkable abilities cannot achieve long-term goals. On the. 32.