Table 4.11 A comparison of metaphorical meanings in zuǐ and kǒu in Zhao’s study (2010) and in this study
Body-Part
Terms Meaning
(Zhao (2010)) Example
(Zhao (2010)) Meaning
As shown in Table 4.11, Zhao (2010: 74-75) suggests that zuǐ denotes no metaphorical meanings, while zuǐ is used to denote the metaphorical meaning
MOUTH-SHAPED in this study. Kǒu denotes two metaphorical meanings MOUTH-SHAPED and GATEWAY in both Zhao’s work (2010: 74-75) and in this study, while it is found that kǒu denotes one more metaphorical meaning NEAR TIME/SPACE in this study.
4.3 Lexicalization Types
As mentioned in Chapter III, the lexicalization types are determined based on the analysis of the grammatical identities and meanings of the word components. That is, once the word component structures and meanings in the words are analyzed, the lexicalization types of the words can be derived. Table 4.12-Table 4.17 present the distribution of word component structures and their corresponding lexicalization types in disyllabic words containing the six body-part terms across metonymic meanings and metaphorical meanings. In Table 4.12-Table 4.17, the word component structures
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of the words are presented in the left column of the tables, the meanings are exhibited in the top of tables, and their lexicalization types are shown in the column under Types: meta is an abbrevation of metaphorical lexicalization; agram an abbrevation of agrammatical lexicalization; and aseman an abbrevation of asemantic lexicalization.
To recapitulate, if the original meaning of the components of a word is not
compositional but metaphorical, and the grammatical identity of its components still can be recognized, the word is categorized under metaphorical lexicalization. If a word cannot be understood based on the compositional meaning of its components but the grammatical identity of its components still remains, it is categorized under asemamtic lexicalization. If the components of a word lose their original grammatical identity but their meaning still obtains, the word is categorized under agrammatial lexicalization. It should be noted that the words containing the six body-part terms with literal meanings are excluded in our analyses of the lexicalization types, for based on the definition given by Packard (2000), they all exhibit compositional meanings and keep their grammatical identity; that is, they belong to conventional lexicalization, which is not the focus in this current study. The distribution of the word component structures and their corresponding lexicalization types in liǎn and miàn is presented in Table 4.12.
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4.12 The distribution of the word component structures and their corresponding lexicalization types in disyllabic words containing liǎn and miàn across metonymic meanings
As shown in Table 4.12, when words containing liǎn are used to express the metonymic meaning of PERSON, EMOTION, or CHARACTER, the most dominant word component structure is [NN]N as illustrated in the examples in (34)and the dominant lexicalization type is metaphorical lexicalization, for PERSON, 100%; for EMOTION, 61.2%; and for CHARACTER, 61.11%, while when they are used to express DIGNITY
(66.67%) and APPEARANCE (96.88%), the most dominant word component structure is [VN]V, as in (35), and the dominant lexicalization type is also metaphorical lexicalization.
(34) liǎn in the [NN]N structure and in metaphorical lexicalizaion a. PERSON : tóuliǎn ‘people’
Person Emotion Character Dignity Appearance Comfront Quantity
Strutures Types Liǎn Miàn Liǎn Miàn Liǎn Miàn Liǎn Miàn Liǎn Miàn Liǎn Miàn Liǎn Miàn
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b. EMOTION : zuǐliǎn ‘facial expressions’
c. CHARACTER : huāliǎn ‘male character in chinese opera with a painted face’
(35) liǎn in the [VN]V structure and in metaphorical lexicalizaion a. DIGNITY : fānliǎn ‘suddenly get mad’
b. APPEARANCE : lòuliǎn ‘show up’
As for miàn, when miàn in words denotes PERSON, EMOTION, DIGNITY and
QUANTITY, as illustrated in (36), most words are constructed with two noun components [NN]N, for PERSON, 78.14%; for EMOTION, 93.14%; for DIGNITY, 62.45%; and for QUANTITY, 100%, and the most dominant lexicalization type is metaphorical lexicalization. If miàn in words denotes the meaning of CHARACTER, the words are constructed with an adjective and a noun [AN]N (100%) as in (37) and in metaphorical lexicalization. If miàn denotes the meaning of CONFRONT (V.), most words are in the form of two verbs [VV]V (99.24%) as in (38) and in metaphorical lexicalization. If miàn in the words denotes the meaning of APPEARANCE, most words are in the form of a verb and a noun [VN]V (89.89%) as in (39) and in metaphorical lexicalization.
(36) miàn in the [NN]N structure and in metaphorical lexicalizaion a. PERSON : rénmiàn ‘people’
b. EMOTION : miànróng ‘countenance’
c. DIGNITY : qíngmiàn ‘face-saving’
a. QUANTITY : yímiàn as a classifier
(37) miàn in the [AN]N structure and in metaphorical lexicalizaion
CHARACTER : jiǎmiàn ‘masked’
(38) miàn in the [VV]V structure and in metaphorical lexicalizaion
CONFRONT (V.) : miànlín ‘confront’
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(39) miàn in the [VN]V structure and in metaphorical lexicalizaion
APPEARANCE: lòumiàn ‘show up’
In short, the results for liǎn and miàn are presented in the same tables for two reasons: one is that they are counterparts to each other and the other is that this makes comparison between them clearer. When words containing either liǎn or miàn are used to express the metonymic meaning of PERSON and EMOTION, the most dominant word component structure is [NN]N and the dominant lexicalization type is
metaphorical lexicalization. However, they exhibit differences in their word component structures and lexicalization types when they are used to express
CHARACTER, DIGNITY, and APPEARANCE. The only word component structure when miàn is used to express CHARACTER is [AN]N in metaphorical lexicalization.
Although the [AN]N structure can also be found when liǎn is used to express
CHARACTER, the most dominant structure in liǎn is [NN]N in metaphorical
lexicalization. The most dominant word component structure and lexicalization type in liǎn is [VN]V in metaphorical lexicalizationwhen words containing liǎn are used to express DIGNITY: but in miàn, it is [NN]N in metaphorical lexicalization. When they are used to express APPEARANCE, their most dominant structure is in [VN] group with different syntactic categories but the same lexicalization type: [VN]N in metaphorical lexicalization for liǎn; [VN]V in metaphorical lexicalization for miàn. As for
CONFRONT (V.) and QUANTITY, only miàn is used to denote these two metonymic meanings and their dominant word component structure and lexicalization types have been discussed above.
As for yǎn and mù, the distribution of the word component structures and their
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corresponding lexicalization types in disyllabic words containing yǎn and mù across metonymic meanings is given in Table 4.13.
4.13 The distribution of word component structures and their corresponding lexicalization types in disyllabic words containing yǎn and mù across metonymic meanings
If yǎn in words denotes the metonymic meaning PERSON, EMOTION, and
INTELLECTION, the most dominant word component structure and lexicalization type is [NN]N in metaphorical lexicalization as in (40) (for PERSON, 100%; for EMOTION, 88.05%; and for INTELLECTION, 95.5%), while if yǎn in words denotes the
metonymic meaning of , as in (41a), the most dominant word component
PERSON EMOTION ABILITY INTELLECTION FOCUS
Strutures Types Yǎn Mù Yǎn Mù Yǎn Mù Yǎn Mù Yǎn Mù
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structure and lexicalization type is [VN]V in metaphorical lexicalization (98.18%).
Two dominant word component structures and lexicalization types are found when yǎn in words denotes the metonymic meaning ABILITY: 36.81% for [NN]D in agrammatical lexicalization as in (42), and 35.76% for [VN]V in metaphorical lexicalization, as in (41b).
(40) yǎn in the [NN]N structure and in metaphorical lexicalization a. PERSON : yǎnméi ‘spy’
b. EMOTION: lèiyǎn ‘tearful eyes’
c. INTELLECTION : yǎnjiè ‘vision’
(41) yǎn in the [VN]V structure and in metaphorical lexicalization a. FOCUS : yàoyǎn ‘dazzling’
b. ABILITY : fàngyǎn ‘scan widely’
(42) yǎn in the [NN]D structure and inagrammatical lexicalization
ABILITY: qīnyǎn ‘see with one's own eyes’
Only one word structure and one lexicalization type is found when mù denotes the meaning PERSON: [NN]N in metaphorical lexicalization, as illustrated by (43a).
The highest percentage of occurrences is [VN]V in metaphorcial lexicalization (64.38%)when mù denotes the meaning EMOTION, as in (44a). When mù denotes the meaning ABILITY, [VN]V in metaphorical lexicalization (31.25%) and [VN]D in agrammatical lexicalization (43.75%) show higher percentages of occurrences than others, as in (44b) and (45). The most dominant word component structure and lexicalization type when mù denotes the meaning is INTELLECTION [NN]N (65.45%) in metaphorical lexicalization, as in (43b). The most dominant word component structure and lexicalization type when mù denotes the meaning FOCUS is [VN]V
(90.55%) in metaphorical lexicalization, as in (44c).
(43) mù in the [NN] structure and in metaphorical lexicalization
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(44) mù in the [VN]V structure and in metaphorical lexicalization a. EMOTION : dèngmù ‘stare in anger’
b. ABILITY : huánmù ‘scan widely’
c. FOCUS : duómù ‘to catch one’s eyes’
(45) mù in the [VN]D structure and in agrammatical lexicalization
ABILITY: jímù ‘strain one's eyes to look at the distance’
In sum, the most dominant word component structure and lexicalization type when yǎn and mù are used to denote PERSON and INTELLECTION is [NN]N in metaphorical lexicalization. The most dominant word component structure and lexicalization type when yǎn and mù are used to denote FOCUS is [VN]V in metaphorical lexicalization.
The most dominant word component structure and lexicalization type when yǎn and mù are used to denote EMOTION and ABILITY are different, which is discussed above.
The metonymic meaning CONDITION is only found for mù. The lexicalization types for the last two body-part terms: zuǐ and kǒu are exhibited in Table 4.14.
Table 4.14 The distribution of word component structures and their corresponding lexicalization types in disyllabic words containing zuǐ and kǒu across metonymic meanings
PERSON EMOTION CHARACTER FLAVOR UTTERANCES QUANTITY
Structures Types Zuǐ Kǒu Zui Kou Zui Kou Zui Kou Zui Kou Zui Kou
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Only one word component structure and lexicalization type is found when zuǐ denotes the meaning PERSON or EMOTION: [NN]N structure in metaphorical
lexicalization for PERSON (46a); [VN]V structure in metaphorical lexicalization for
EMOTION (47a). The most dominant word component structure and lexicalization type when zuǐ denotes the meaning CHARACTER is [NN]N in metaphorical lexicalization (46b) (72.41%). Two dominant word component structures and lexicalization types are found when zuǐ denotes the meaning FLAVOR: [VN]V in metaphorical
lexicalization (47b) and [AN]N in metaphorical lexicalization (46.15% for both), as in (48). The most dominant word component structure and lexicalization type when zuǐ denotes the meaning UTTERANCES is [VN]V in metaphorical lexicalization (91.67%), as in (47c).
(46) zuǐ in the [NN]N structure and in metaphorical lexicalization a. PERSON : míngzuǐ ‘pundit’
b. CHARACTER: tiězuǐ ‘with a iron and bitter tongue’
(47) zuǐ in the [VN]V structure and in metaphorical lexicalization a. EMOTION : dūzuǐ ‘pout’
b. FLAVOR : tiāozuǐ ‘be fussy about food’
c. UTTERANCES : dǐngzuǐ ‘talk back’
(48) zuǐ in the [AN]N structure and in metaphorical lexicalization
FLAVOR: língzuǐ ‘snacks’
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As for kǒu, the most dominant word component structure and lexicalization type when it denotes the meaning PERSON, FLAVOR, and UTTERANCES is the [NN]N
structure in metaphorical lexicalization is as for PERSON, 96.95%; for FLAVOR, 73.67%; and for UTTERANCES, 48%, as in (49). When kǒu denotes the meaning
EMOTION, [VN]D in agrammatical lexicalization shows higher frequency of
occurences (75%), as in (50). Only [NN]D structure in agrammatical lexicalization is found when kǒu denotes the meaning QUANTITY, as in (51).
(49) kǒu in the [NN]N structure and in metaphorical lexicalization a. PERSON : hùkǒu ‘number of households’
b. FLAVOR: kǒugǎn ‘texture’
c. UTTERANCES: kǒucái ‘ways of talking’
(50) kǒu in the [VN]D structure and in agrammatical lexicalization
EMOTION : pīkǒu ‘yell at someone suddendly’
(51) kǒu in the [NN]D structure and in agrammatical lexicalization
QUANTITY: yìkǒu ‘a bite’
In sum, the linguistic behaviors of zuǐ and kǒu are similar only when they are used to denote PERSON and EMOTION: their most dominant word component
strucuture and lexicalization type is [NN]N in metaphorical lexicalization when they denote PERSON; their most dominant word component strucuture and lexicalization type is in [VN]W1 group in either metaphorical ( [VN]V for zuǐ ) or agrammatical lexicalization ( [VN]D for kǒu ) when they denote EMOTION.
The six body-part terms are also used to denote metaphorical meanings. The word component structures, metaphorical meanings, and their corresponding lexicalization
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types in the six body-part terms are exhibited in the following tables.
As mentioned in the section on the analysis of meanings, only miàn denotes metaphorical meanings in the pair of liǎn and miàn. The distribution of the word component structures and their corresponding lexicalization types in disyllabic words containing miàn across metaphorical meanings is presented in Table 4.15.
Table 4.15 The distribution of word component structures and their corresponding lexicalization types in disyllabic words containing miàn across metaphorical meanings
SURFACE CONDITION SIDE
Structures Types Miàn Miàn Miàn
[NN]N meta 3435 2351 8831
[NN]N aseman 40
[NN]D agram 3 443
[VN]N meta 249 7 198
[VN]V meta 12 1 15
[VN]D agram 77
[AN]N meta 272 790 16
[AN]V agram 47 78
[AN]A meta 5 162
[AN]D agram 18 762
Total 4016 3214 10582
As shown in Table 4.15, whatever metaphorical meanings the word miàn in words denotes, its word component structures and lexicalization types exhibit similar patterns: the most dominant word component structure is [NN]N and the most
dominant lexicalization type is metaphorical lexicalization (for SURFACE, 85.53%;
for CONDITION, 73.15%; and for SIDE, 83.45%), as in (52). Moreover, although most
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words containing miàn denoting SURFACE are in [NN]N and in metaphorical
lexicalization, a few cases are found in the same structure ([NN]N), but in asemantic lexicalization (1%), as in (53).
(52) miàn in the [NN]N structure and in metaphorical lexicalization a. SURFACE : dìmiàn ‘ground’
b. CONDITION :shìmiàn ‘market conditions’
c. SIDE : běimiàn ‘the north side’
(53) miàn in the [NN]N structure and in asemantic lexicalization
SURFACE : miàné ‘face value’
For the pair of yǎn and mù, both words denote metaphorical meanings. The distribution of the word component structures and their corresponding lexicalization types in disyllabic words containing yǎn and mù across metaphorical meanings is displayed in Table 4.16.
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Table 4.16 The distribution of word component structures and their corresponding lexicalization types in disyllabic words containing yǎn and mù across metaphorical meanings
In denoting the metaphorical meaning NEAR SPACE, yǎn (72.63%) shows the highest percentages of occurrence in the [NN]N structure in metaphorical
lexicalization (54a) while mù (86.15%) shows the highest percentages of occurrence in the [NV]V structure in agrammatical lexicalization (55). In denoting the
metaphorical meaning NEAR TIME, yǎn (52.94%) shows the highest percentages of occurrence in the [VN]D structure in agrammatical lexicalization (56) while mù (99.87%) shows the highest percentages of occurrence in the [NN]N structure in metaphorical lexicalization (54b). When either yǎn or mù in words denotes the metaphorical meanings TINY HOLE or CENTER, most words are constructed with two
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noun components [NN]N and in metaphorical lexicalization: TINY HOLE, 100% in yǎn and mù; and for CENTER,100% in yǎn and 99.9% in mù. Instances are provided in (54c) and (54d). The [NN]N structure also shows the highest percentages of occurrence when mù denotes the meaning CONDITION (54e) and ENTRY, while the dominant lexicalization type is not metaphorical one but asemantic one when mù denotes the metaphorical meaning ENTRY, as in (57).
(54) yǎn or mù in the [NN]N structure and in metaphorical lexicalization a. NEAR SPACE : yǎnqián ‘at present’;
b. NEAR TIME : mùqián ‘at this moment’
c. TINY HOLE :wǎngyǎn ‘tiny hole of a net’;
wǎngmù ‘tiny hole of a net’
d. CENTER :cíyǎn ‘motif of lyrics’;
gāngmù ‘outline’
e. CONDITION : méimù ‘take shape’
(55) mù in the [NV]V structure and in agrammatical lexicalization
NEAR SPACE : mùjí ‘witness’
(56) yǎn in the [VN]D structure and in metaphorical lexicalization
NEAR SPACE : zhuǎnyǎn ‘in an instant’
(57) mù in the [NN]N structure and in asemantic lexicalization
ENTRY : shūmù ‘bibliography’
The last pair of body-part terms zuǐ and kǒu are discussed in Table 4.17.
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Table 4.17 The distribution of word component structures and their corresponding lexicalization types in disyllabic words containing zuǐ and kǒu across metaphorical meanings
MOUTH-SHPAED NEAR TIME GATEWAY
Structures Types Zuǐ Kǒu Zuǐ Kǒu Zuǐ Kǒu
[NN]N meta 32 432 1387
[NN]D agram 20
[VN]N meta 3 2 6 758
[VN]V meta 1060
[VN]A agram 1
[VN]D agram 8
[AN]N meta 4 2
Total 35 438 26 3216
As displayed in Table 4.17, the metaphorical meaning MOUTH-SHAPED is the only one that both zuǐ and kǒu share. The most dominant word component structure and lexicalization type is [NN]N in metaphorical lexicalization when zuǐ and kǒu denote the metaphorical meaning MOUTH-SHAPED, for zuǐ, 91.43%; for kǒu, 98.63%, as in (58).
(58) zuǐ or kǒu in the [NN]N structure and in metaphorical lexicalization
MOUTH-SHAPED:
húzuǐ ‘spout’; kǒudài ‘pocket’
For the pair of zuǐ and kǒu, only kǒu denotes the metaphorical meaning NEAR TIME and GATEWAY. When kǒu denotes the metaphorical meaning NEAR TIME, as in (59), [NN]D in agrammatical lexicalization is used more frequently (76.92%). In
GATEWAY, as illustrated by (60) and (61), two dominant word component structures and lexicalization types are found: [NN]N structure in metaphorical lexicalization
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(43.13%) and [VN]V structure in metaphorical lexicalization (32.96%), with [NN]N
structure in metaphorical lexicalization showing a slightly higher percentage of occurrences than [VN]V structure in metaphorical lexicalization.
(59) kǒu in the [NN]D structure and in agrammatical lexicalization
NEAR TIME: dāngkǒu ‘at present’
(60) kǒu in the [NN]N structure and in metaphorical lexicalization
GATEWAY: gǎngkǒu ‘harbor’
(61) kǒu in the [VN]V structure and in metaphorical lexicalization
GATEWAY: jìnkǒu ‘import’