In this section, a historical perspective on ESP is provided followed by important theories and studies related to ESP course design, materials development, and a materials design model.
A Historical Perspective on ESP
Tracing the historical background of ESP, Hutchinson and Waters (1987) identified three main movements contributing to the emergence of all ESP: (1) the demands of a “brave new world,” (2) a revolution in linguistics, and (3) an increased focus on the learner.
First, since the end of the Second World War in 1945, English has become the accepted international language of technology and commerce; thus it has created a new generation of learners who must learn English to satisfy the demands of the commercially interconnected modern world. Second, the growth of English courses tailored to specific needs and language demands shifted the focus away from analyzing the formal structures of language to investigating the ways in which language is actually used in real communication. Third, new insights gained from educational psychology also contributed to the development of ESP. Instead of viewing learners as blank slates to be filled, learners were seen to have different needs and interests, differences which had a critical influence on their motivation and thereby resulted in the need for different approaches for them to achieve maximum effectiveness in their learning (Hutchinson and Waters, 1987).
Dudley-Evans and St. John’s (1998) work on developments in ESP provides another historical perspective. By examining closely the interaction between Applied Linguistics, English Language Teaching (ELT), and ESP from the 1960s to the 1990s, the authors traced four factors that contributed to the ESP development: (1) the balance between research and practice, (2) trends in English for Academic Purposes, (3) authenticity of text and authenticity of purpose, and finally (4) trends in English for occupational purposes. All these factors, as the authors observed, were greatly influenced by developments in education, business, and computer technology, whose
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impact can be seen even today.
The balance between research and practice refers to the relationship between theory and materials/teaching in ESP. ESP started its work in the area of register analysis. Swales’ influential work, Episodes in ESP (1988), prioritized certain areas for teaching and materials production, areas which formed the basis for more extensive research. In addition to register analysis, trends in English for Academic Purposes – the movements in rhetorical and discourse analysis, analysis of study skills, and analysis of learning needs – have also influenced the development of ESP. The third factor identified by Dudley-Evans and St. John (1998) states that authenticity goes hand in hand with genuineness. Authenticity of purpose is as critical as genuineness of text.
Authenticity and genuineness lie in the nature of the interaction between the reader and the text. Lastly, an understanding of the different needs of learners with various degrees of job experience has led to development of a variety of ESP materials to bridge cultural gaps and to help people communicate effectively across borders.
Orr (2008) identified three phases of ESP development, which he labeled as First Generation ESP (FirstGen ESP), Second Generation ESP (SecondGen ESP), and Next Generation ESP (NextGen ESP). By FirstGen ESP, Orr (2008) refers to the middle of the 20th century, after the close of World War II. This phase is characterized by the English language instruction for academic and occupational purposes that began when large numbers of nonnative speakers of English immigrated to English-speaking countries, settled in areas where the majority were English-speaking people, and therefore needed to learn English in order to obtain opportunities for higher education and better employment.
The SecondGen ESP started in the second half of the 20th century and still exists.
Its features are needs-based, purpose-driven English language instruction; significant growth in research, publishing, and professional events; and growth in the number of language educators identifying themselves as ESP professionals.
NextGen ESP, according to Orr, began in the 1990s. The initial impetus for its development lay in rapid changes in technology, economics, and culture. NextGen ESP is characterized by (1) changes in ESP locations, moving ESP training out of English
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departments to locations that can best meet the needs of learners; (2) changes in ESP staffing, including staff with degrees not only in applied linguistics but also other professional fields to fulfill the requirements set by the language company; (3) changes in ESP content, changing from content designed for general language teaching to materials for specialists who need high levels of discipline-specific understanding; and (4) changes in ESP delivery, delivering materials not only through human beings but also technology.
ESP Course design
Hutchinson and Waters (1987) identified three approaches to ESP course design.
Language-centered course design draws a direct connection between the analysis of the target situation and the content of the ESP course. The learning needs of the students are not accounted for at every stage of the course design process. Skills-centered course design tries to build on the positive factors learners bring to the ESP course, enabling learners to achieve on their own paths. This approach focuses more on language use than on language learning. A learning-centered approach is based on the principle that learning is totally determined by the learner. Learning is viewed as a process by which the learners use what knowledge or skills they have in order to make sense of the new information. This approach concerns not only what competence a learner acquires but also how this particular competence is acquired.
Dudley-Evans and St. John (1998) pointed out a number of parameters that need to be considered in approaching ESP course design: (1) Should the course be intensive or extensive? (2) Should the learners’ performance be assessed or non-assessed? (3) Should the course deal with immediate needs or with delayed needs? (4) Should the role of the teacher be the provider of knowledge or should it be as a facilitator? (5) Should the course have a broad or narrow focus? (6) Should the course be pre-study or pre-experience or run parallel with that study or experience? (7) Should the materials be common-core or specific to learners’ study or work? (8) Should the learners be homogeneous or heterogeneous? (9) Should the course design be worked out by the language teacher or should it be subject to a process of negotiation with the learners?
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(p. 145-146).
In discussing approaches to ESP course design, Basturkmen (2006) investigated four important topics: (1) varieties of language, (2) needs analysis, (3) types of syllabuses, and (4) narrative and wide-angle course designs. In terms of varieties of language, there are two perspectives. Should there be a specific-purpose language based on and extending from a basic core of general language? Or does language exist as one variety or another with no basic core language? Different types of syllabuses can emerge during the design process. Specifying and ordering the content of an ESP course involves a number of theoretical stances (e.g., synthetic vs. analytic) and reveals the course designer’s beliefs about the nature of teaching and learning. Finally, the principles of course designs suggest that when needs are specific, a narrow-angled course may be appropriate, whereas when the needs are more general, a wide-angle course may be more suitable.
An ESP Materials Design Model
Chen (2006) stated three possible ways of obtaining materials for ESP programs:
(1) using existing materials, (2) writing materials, and (3) adapting materials. For example, in Gao’s (2007) study of Chinese students of business, one existing textbook was used, but this textbook was supplemented by in-house materials. Robertson’s (2005) examination of materials for improving flight attendants’ English skills in Korea showed that the materials lacked principles of English grammar and structure. Thus, appropriate materials needed to be created. In a project for training tour guides, Lo &
Sheu (2008) also indicated that there were no suitable textbooks and thus ESP materials needed to be adapted from existing materials.
Hutchinson and Waters (1987) introduced an ESP materials design model, consisting of four elements: input, content focus, language focus and tasks (p. 108-109).
Input refers to a text, dialogue, video-recording, diagram or any piece of communication data, to address the needs a teacher has defined in an analysis of the class. Input may involve (1) stimulus material for activities, (2) new language items,
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(3) correct models of language use, (4) a topic for communication, (5) opportunities for learners to use their information processing skills, and (6) opportunities for learners to use their existing knowledge both of the language and the subject matter.
Content focus addresses the mindset that language is not an end in itself, but a means of conveying information and feeling. Non-linguistic content should be exploited to generate meaningful communication in the classroom.
Language focus refers to the idea that the teachers’ aim is to enable learners to use language, but giving learners communicative tasks and activities for which they do not have the necessary language knowledge is unfair. Good materials should involve both opportunities for analysis and synthesis. In a language focus, learners have the opportunity to take the language apart, study how it works, and practice putting it back together again.
Tasks reflect the idea that the ultimate purpose of language learning is language use. Following this reasoning, materials should be designed to lead towards a communicative task in which learners use the content and language knowledge they have built up through the unit.
Historical studies of ESP enable us to understand current ESP developments both in Taiwan and worldwide. The theories and important studies that underpin the essential principles of ESP course design and materials development have served as an important foundation for the design and implementation of the ESP program for the VHS students of tourism in this study.