2. The International Status of the Holy See
2.5. Conclusion
the opportunity of doing so has been offered to him represents before you a
power (if it is even possible to use such a term) which has no army at all. Its arms are exclusively of moral and spiritual nature, far removed therefore from those with which your Conference is concerned”.63
The Holy See represents a moral power active in every part of the world that aims to offer a global project to the world on the spiritual and moral levels. Through soft power64, as described by Joseph S. Nye, the Holy See desires to conduct its spiritual mission and to lead society to higher values of freedom, of human rights and of peace which is a supreme good for humanity. Its actions take place on the plane of consciences by persuasion. The Holy See proceeds through different channels such as public opinion channels, diplomatic channels, or by the presence of its representatives at the assemblies held by the International Organizations.
Technically, the diplomacy of the Vatican is carried out through bilateral diplomacy65 and through multilateral diplomacy.66
2.5. Conclusion
The Holy See is the authority of the Pope within the Catholic Church; it is the institutional embodiment of the ministry of the Pontiff. Indeed, it has an atypical status and is a unique entity amongst other subjects of international law but its international personality cannot be denied. The status of the Holy See may be an
63Card. Casaroli A., Statement at the Disarmament Conference (February, 21, 1989) in Dupuy, A.
(2003). Words that matter.The Holy See in multilateral diplomacy. New York, USA: The Path to Peace foundation, p. 268
64Soft power is a concept developed by Joseph Nye to describe the ability to attract and co-opt rather than coerce and rather than using force or money as a means of persuasion. The phrase was coined by Joseph Nye of Harvard University in a 1990 book, Bound to Lead: The Changing Nature of American Power.
65 The bilateral diplomacy of the Holy See is the relations with the 179 states; the signing of Concordats, treaties that are in solemn form or accords on specific subjects.
66 The multilateral diplomacy of the Holy See is the relations with governmental organizations, essentially the United Nations and its agencies, the Council of Europe, the European Communities, the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe [OSCE], the Organization of American States and the Organization for African Unity.
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30 anomaly; it enjoys international juridical status. Unlike the other states, the presence
of the Holy See is universal. The pontifical diplomacy takes part in the realm of international relations as a moral voice or moral authority. Without any doubt, the Holy See has been and remains a vibrant part of the international arena and its voice speaks not just for some or for its own people but for all of humankind.
Even though the pontifical diplomacy has been many times efficient throughout its history, it also has some limits. The Pontiff only uses soft power for its diplomacy and words can be persuasive sometimes but also weak at other times. No one can assure the Pope that his words will be followed. In fact, a state will generally listen to the Holy See when the pontifical diplomacy is in its favor. A state in order to defend its own interests, especially on economic or political issues, won’t necessarily listen to the message of the Pope and surpass its moral authority. The ideal of ecclesiastical diplomacy is the brotherhood of men, and whether or not it succeeds in achieving this goal it serves as a guide for civil diplomacy which attempts to make reason prevail over force and to contribute to the growth of individual states in harmony with all others. In fact, according to this view, it would be a positive loss for civil diplomacy if Vatican diplomacy ceased to be practiced.
Thus, the envoys of the Holy See are sent to various countries, not just to defend the rights of the Church, but also to defend the rights and to serve the needs of the people there.67 The Holy See has diplomatic relations with 179 countries and among them the Republic of China is included. The relations of the Holy See with the Republic of China are marked by mutual respect and by the shared ideals of religious freedom, human dignity, democracy world peace and the promotion of the
67Chao, J. (2000). The evolution of Vatican diplomacy.Tamkang Journal of International Affairs, 4 (4), p. 49
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31 greater welfare for each human being. However, theses ties have been put to several
tests. In fact, these relations have been an issue for the People’s Republic of China to accept and to start diplomatic ties with the Vatican. That very issue needs to be investigated through the history of the Sino-Vatican relations in order to better understand the challenges that the Holy See must face between the Republic of China and the People’s Republic of China.
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3. Historical Evolution of Sino-Vatican Relations3.1. Introduction
In China, France and Britain took part in the Second Opium War68 and in 1860 French troops entered Peking. Thus, China was forced into unequal treaties and to give France and Britain enormous indemnities. The treaties granted France the right to protect the missionary work in China. Therefore, China had to concede to France the so-called “French protectorate” over the Christian missions. However, the Holy See desired to free the missions from the protection of the colonial powers and to establish diplomatic ties between Rome and Peking. In 1860, Pope Pius IX sent Msgr. Louis Spelta as Apostolic visitor69 to China in order to begin relations with the Emperor Xianfeng.70The Pontiff also gave to Msgr. Spelta a letter for the Chinese Emperor Xianfeng to establish a kind of convention with the Chinese Government, which could protect all the Catholics in China.71 The letter stated:
The Holy See frankly wants to manifest its good will towards Your Majesty, and strongly desire to make possible the establishment of an entente between Your Majesty and the Holy See…We wholeheartedly beg Your Imperial Majesty to give protection to all the Catholics who live in the immense areas of Your Empire, as well as to all the evangelical workers, i.e., European missionaries, so that the Catholic faith can be freely preached in those regions.
68 The Second Opium War or the Anglo-French expedition to China was a war pitting the British Empire and the Second French Empire against the Qing Dynasty of China, lasting from 1856 to 1860.
It was fought over their conflicting viewpoints on diplomatic relations, trade, the administration of justice and tea.
69 In the Catholic Church, an Apostolic visitor is a Papal representative with a transient mission to perform a canonical visitation of relatively short duration. The visitor is deputed to investigate a special circumstance in a diocese or country, and to submit a report to the Holy See at the conclusion of the investigation.
70 The Emperor Xianfeng ( 咸豐帝), 17 July 1831 – 22 August 1861, was the ninth Emperor of the Qing Dynasty, and the seventh Qing emperor to rule over China, from 1850 to 1861.
71 Wei, L. (1966). Le Saint-Siège, la France et la Chine sous le pontificat de Léon XIII.
Schöneck/Beckenried, Switzerland: Les cahiers de la nouvelle revue de science missionnaire, p 8.
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But unfortunately, due to the death of the Emperor Xianfeng (in 1861) and thesickness and early death of Mgr. Spelta (in 1862), the letter most likely did not reach its destination.72 In 1881, the Emperor Guangxu73 insisted to have diplomatic relations with the Holy See. Then, in 1886, Pope Leo XIII decided to send an ApostolicNuncio74 to China. Nonetheless, France was opposed to the nomination of a diplomatic envoy and threatened to break its diplomacy with the Holy See.
3.2. From the Apostolic Delegation to the ApostolicNunciature in China 3.2.1. Archbishop Celso Costantini, First ApostolicDelegate to China
After the atrocities of the Boxer Revolution75 where tens of thousands of Chinese Christians were slaughtered without pity, as traitors,76 and the proclamation of the Republic of China77 in 1912, Pope Benedict XV decided to accelerate the process of Sino-Vatican relations. Finally, the Vatican established its first ties with China in 1922 when it sent its ApostolicDelegate78, Archbishop Celso Costantini, an
72 Ticozzi, S. (2009, Spring). Lou Tseng-Tsiang (1871-1949) and Sino-Vatican diplomatic relations.Tripod, XXIX(152), p. 13.
73 The Emperor Guangxu, 14 August 1871 – 14 November 1908, was the eleventh emperor of the Qing Dynasty, and the ninth Qing emperor to rule over China. His reign lasted from 1875 to 1908.
74ApostolicNuncio is an ecclesiastical diplomatic title (from the Latin word, Nuntius meaning envoy).
An ApostolicNuncio is the equivalent of ambassadors of other countries. In Catholic countries, the Nuncio often ranks above ambassadors in diplomatic protocol.
75 The Boxer Rebellion was a proto-nationalist movement by the “Righteous Harmony Society” in China between 1898 and 1901, opposing foreign imperialism and Christianity. The uprising took place in response to foreign “spheres of influence” in China, with grievances ranging from opium traders, political invasion, economic manipulation, to missionary evangelism. In China, popular sentiment remained resistant to foreign influences, and anger rose over the “unequal treaties”, which the weak Qing state could not resist. Concerns grew that missionaries and Chinese Christians could use this decline to their advantage, appropriating lands and property of unwilling Chinese peasants to give to the Church. This sentiment resulted in violent revolts against foreign interests. In June 1900 in Beijing, Boxer fighters threatened foreigners and forced them to seek refuge in the Legation Quarter.
In response, the initially hesitant Empress Dowager Cixi, urged by the conservatives of the Imperial Court, supported the Boxers and declared war on foreign powers.
76Charbonnier, J.-P.(2007). Christians in China. San Francisco, USA: Ignatius Press, p. 335.
77 The 1911 revolution led by Dr. Sun Yat-Sen overthrew the Qing Dynasty. In 1912, the government of the Republic of China was established in Nanking, marking the birth of the first republic in Asia.
78For nations with whom the Holy See has no diplomatic ties, an ApostolicDelegate is sent to serve as a liaison with the Roman Catholic Church in that nation, though not accredited to the government of the state. ApostolicDelegates have the same ecclesiastical rank as Nuncios, but have no formal diplomatic status; though in some countries they have some diplomatic privileges.
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34 ecclesiastical representative of His Holinessthe Pope,with no formal diplomatic
credentials.79 In fact, before sending Archbishop Costantini to China as ApostolicDelegate, the Holy See had tried to send a representative to China to solve certain problems related to missionary activity. At that time France had a lot of power regarding the Catholic missions because it possessed the “protectorate” over them. So, when the Holy See assigned Archbishop Costantini to China, it took special care to request that he maintained absolute secrecy about his assignment.80The Pope entrusted him to apply to China the spirit of his Apostolic letter Maximum illud81 in order to renew the understanding of the Christian Missions in Asian countries. Pope Benedict XV wanted to create a better way for the Catholic Church to evangelize for the progress of missionary activities especially at that time of the growth of nationalism in China. The task of Archbishop Costantini was then to accommodate the evangelization work, to take care of the local Churches in considering their own cultures and to establish the native bishops.
Benedict XV wanted Archbishop Celso Costantini to free the Holy See from the protectorate system and its nationalistic implications, to eliminate the influence of European powers and to reshape the theology in China.
When Archbishop Costantini arrived in China, the Catholic Church was still under foreign missionary control. Nonetheless on his arrival, with zeal, he immediately began to push for implementation of the directives outlined by Pope Benedict XV in his missionary apostolic letter Maximum illud. Before leaving for
79 Chan, G. (1989, December). Sino-Vatican Diplomatic Relations: Problems and Prospects. China Quarterly, 120, p. 815.
80 Chong, F. (2008, Spring). Cardinal Celso Costantini and the Chinese Catholic Church.Tripod, XXVIII (148), p. 48.
81 Maximum Illud is an Apostolic letter of Benedict XV issued on 30 November 1919 in the sixth year of his pontificate. It deals with the Catholic missions after World War I.
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35 China, Cardinal Von Rossum, the Prefect of Propaganda Fide82, exhorted
Archbishop Costantini:
Make every effort to implement the thought of the encyclical Maximum Illud.
The most urgent matter is to hold the national council of bishops meeting as soon as possible”.83
Two years after his arrival, Costantini succeeded in holding the so-called First Council of China, in Shanghai from May 15 to June 13, 1924. He convened all the foreign heads of Catholic missions in China, Delegates of various missionary institutes, and representatives of the Chinese clergy to plan a general reform of the Catholic Church in China. Together, they addressed pressing problems, such as the tension between native and foreign priests, the promotion of the Chinese clergy and the ordination of Chinese bishops, the creation of new commissions for the work of the apostolate, and the liberation of the Church from the political influence of the French protectorate.84 Thanks to the work of Costantini, PrefecturesApostolic85 were headed by Chinese prelates, Chinese priests in increasing number acceded to important positions and missionary training began to emphasize understanding of and respect for Chinese culture. In October 1926, Pope Pius XI ordained six Chinese bishops (the first such ordinations since 1685). By 1933, when Costantini finished his mandate, 19 of the existing 119 ecclesiastical territories were in Chinese
82Now called Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples.
83 Chong, F. (2008, Spring). op. cit., p. 49.
84Wiest, J.-P. C. (December 2005). Celso Benigno Luigi Costantini, 1876-1958.China Biographical Dictionary of Chinese Christianity, Shanghai. Retrieved August 25, 2011, from
http://www.bdcconline.net/en/stories/c/costantini-celso.php
85 An Apostolic prefect (or prefect Apostolic) is a priest who heads what is known as an
ApostolicPrefecture, a missionary area where the Catholic Church is not yet sufficiently developed to have it made a diocese.
If a Prefecture grows and flourishes, it is elevated to an Apostolic vicariate, headed by a titular bishop, in the hope that with time the region will generate enough Catholics and stability for its Catholic institutions, to warrant being established as a diocese.
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36 hands. The prelate also contributed to the idea that the Chinese had primary
responsibility for converting their own people when he founded, in 1926, the Disciples of the Lord (C.D.D)86, a Chinese religious congregation for the purpose of imparting the missionary spirit to the local clergy.87 The most important Costantini’s contribution to improving relations between the Church and the Republic of China was in making Christianity compatible with Chinese culture.88 Costantini, strongly advocated the development of Chinese forms of expression and, through his influence, Chinese-style buildings, statues, images, and music began to gain acceptance in the Catholic Church. He is also credited with the establishment of Fu Jen University in Peking as China’s first catholic university.
The presence and the work of Costantini made possible to improve the relations between the Holy See and China. His nomination was an unofficial way of indicating the end of France’s special protectorate over the missions, although the Delegate was not accredited as a Nuncio to the Chinese government. Nevertheless the Chinese authorities were appreciative of this move; at the funeral of Sun Yat-sen in 1925, Archbishop Costantini received the same honors as the members of the diplomatic corps.89 After ten years in China, Archbishop Costantini left in February 1933 and was appointed Secretary of the Propaganda Fide in Rome. On November 28, 1933, Pius XI assigned Archbishop Marius Zanin to this very same post. Even though, this new ApostolicDelegate was not a formal diplomatic envoy, he was received in Nanjing by President Lin Sen on March 14, 1934.
86 Congregation of the Disciples of the Lord (Congregatio Discipulorum Domini, CDD)
87Wiest, J.-P. C. (December 2005). Ibid.
88 Tai, R. (2002). The Vatican's Dilemma: Taipei and/or Beijing? In A Collection of Documents on the History of the 60 Years of Sino-Vatican Diplomatic Relations. Taipei, Taiwan, ROC: Institute of Catholic History, Fujen Catholic University, p. 604.
89Charbonnier, J. (2007). op. cit., p. 395.
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37 3.2.2. The Holy See and the Manchukuo
During that period, China had to face both the civil war90 and the Japanese invasion. It is important to recall this episode of the Japanese invasion in Northern China in order to clearly understand the position of the Church and its policy. Indeed, the presence of the Holy See in the Japanese occupied territories has been misinterpreted and used as proof of a supposed malicious policy of the Pope toward China. To recall this episode of History, will help to understand the aim of the Church in China and its real interests. It will also show that the Holy See did not have any policy to harm China as sometimes is thought by some or is used by others to justify any mistrust of China toward the Church.
In March 1932, the Japanese created the state of Manchukuo, considered by most historians as a puppet state of the Empire of Japan, and installed Puyi as the ruler of this new state. In 1934, Pu Yi, the last Qing Emperor of China, was officially crowned the emperor of Manchukuo. The League of Nations refused to recognize the legality of Manchukuo. This moral sanction obviously could not be ignored by the moral authority of the Vatican.91However, the Catholic Church had vicars and prefects Apostolic in charge of the ten missions in the Manchukuo: eight missions in Manchuria plus the two provinces of Jehol and Hingan which were then annexed to the Empire. As mentioned previously in the chapter 2, the Holy See,as representative
90 The Chinese civil (1927-1950) war confronted the Chinese Nationalist Party (Kuomintang, KMT) governing the Republic of China and the Chinese Communist Party (CCP).
91 Charbonnier, J. (2002). Did the Vatican establish diplomatic relations with the Manchukuo? In The International Symposium on the History of Sino-Vatican Diplomatic Relations (中梵外交關係史 國際學術研討會論文集, Zhōng fàn wàijiāo guānxì shǐ guójì xuéshù yántǎo huì lùnwén jí).中華民國 九十一年十二月Zhōnghuá mínguó jiǔshíyī nián shí'èr yuè. Tapei, Taiwan, ROC: Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of China and the Institute of Catholic History, Fujen Catholic University (中華民國外交部贊助天主教輔仁大學歷史系印行, Zhōnghuá mínguó wàijiāo bù zànzhù tiānzhǔjiào fǔ rén dàxué lìshǐ xì yìnxíng), p. 198.
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38 of the Catholic Church, is concerned about its Catholics throughout the world and
with their religious freedom. Consequently, thePropaganda Fide entrusted Msgr.Auguste Gaspais, titular bishop of Canope and Vicar Apostolic of Kirin, the task of representing “ad tempus, donec aliter provideatur”the Holy See and Catholic Missions to the Manchukuo Government. It is important to emphasize that this
with their religious freedom. Consequently, thePropaganda Fide entrusted Msgr.Auguste Gaspais, titular bishop of Canope and Vicar Apostolic of Kirin, the task of representing “ad tempus, donec aliter provideatur”the Holy See and Catholic Missions to the Manchukuo Government. It is important to emphasize that this