Literature Review

This section stresses on reviewing related theories and research in four parts:

1) Study of spatial pattern development: water settlement is built on artificial space above water. Water, as the base of the settlement, led to unique consideration to building and community’s spatial pattern. In order to design specific perspective for the study of water settlement’s spatial pattern, it is important to review existing theories which interprets the formation of settlement occurred in natural settings and the spatial components used to observe and analyze spatial pattern. These basic knowledge is important references for this study to identify water and other physical or socio-economic factor to water settlement’s spatial pattern.

2) Study of water settlement in local and foreign cases study: reviewing previous studies in water settlement offers diverse perspective of concern and methods used to deal with such issues. It helps expand the horizon of this study.

3) Study of traditional Malay architecture in aspects of spatial pattern and architectural forms: the study of Malaysia water settlement is minimal and some former studies classified water settlement into traditional Malay architecture. Hence, it is important to review spatial characteristic of traditional Malay architecture in order to identify the feasibility of water settlement.

4 Nevertheless, this study understands that spatial development is a constant process; hence, the designed phases are only applicable in this specific study in consideration of available spatial and map data. Some of the development which could not be precisely traced or fit into the designed phases will be noted particularly in the description.

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4) Study of resilience and adaptation of coastal or flood-prone area: The objective of this study is to discuss spatial pattern in adapting to coastal environment. Thus, the review of adaptation and resilience to climate change impact is important to examine the possibility of local resilience.

1.4.1 Study of spatial pattern development

Water settlement has gained little attention in former spatial research. Hence, this study refers general theory of spatial development to design specific interpretation that applicable to the study case.

Corresponding to the characteristic of water settlement, literature review focuses on the study of traditional and organic-growth (relative to planned) settlement. The structure to literature review is shown as Figure 1.3.

First, it reviews the form determinants of organic-growth settlement that are applicable to the case study. After identifying the formation of the settlement, the review focuses on spatial pattern. The pattern is observed through three essential spatial structures:

building, street and public space.

Figure 1.3 Diagram of spatial development's literature review Source: illustrated by the study

It is found that, various studies in traditional and organic-growth settlement can be applied to this case study, which will be described in the following section. But, do note that, none of these studies develop from a water-base site. Hence, it can only provide reference to pattern components; the influence of water-base site (despite of ground-base) to pattern will be described in analytical results.

10 I. The form determinants of settlement

Settlement is a collective unit that human beings form for group living, that can be classified by spatial scales including village, rural town and city (R. C. Chen, 1993). By reviewing its spatial form, it provides clue to track the background and factor(s) of a settlement’s formation. The factor then becomes an important object to be observed in the study under the hypothesis that the change of factor leads to the change of spatial characteristic.

According to Morris (1994), the form of settlement has been determined by factors and influences which shall call urban form determinants. The form of a settlement at any given period is the result of a number of locally effective determinants. The determinants can be classified into two different origins: a) natural world determinants and b) man-made determinants.

Besides these two origins of determinants, an introductory consideration is also required of underlying reasons for the existence on their sites of settlement, which are called locational determinants. It is a concept grounded on the natural-world and man-made determinants, which some of them must be the essential prerequisites for a settlement’s existence, for example availability of permanent potable water supply and food.

Natural world determinants are those that originally exist in the natural environment of the geographical location of a settlement. The most significant determinants are topography, climate and available construction materials in surrounding environment.

Topography consists of natural constrains and advantages that may influence the geographical extent and direction of growth, make it a main part of a settlement’s form.

Local climate circumstances bring impact to the form of the shelter when it attempts to response. On the other hand, unexpected climatic or natural disaster can also lead to changes and adjustment of a settlement and its shelter form. Availability of local construction material plays a major role in traditional settlement’s form due to accessibility.

On the other hand, it also decides the form of the shelter depending on the performance

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characteristic. These determinants will be discussed in the water settlement’s forming background focusing on the natural environment that attributes to the settlement⁵.

Man-made determinants are various, continuously increasing and much more complex in nature and the effect. However, they can be summarized into three primary motivating forces - trade, political and social power, and religion⁶. It provides a check-list for the study to analyze water settlement past and present spatial development.

II. The pattern of settlement

Spatial study can be conducted in various theoretical approaches such as typology, morphology, pattern and form. Due to the spatial study of water settlement very limited, the research resources is sufficient to support a comprehensive analysis or classification of a settlement’s type or form. As one of the preliminary studies, this research aims to provide in-depth case analysis by exploring the underlying spatial pattern of the chosen site to identify the force that shaped the pattern and the unique characteristic of spatial structure.

It is based on the assumption that an organic-growth settlement has a unique and distinct pattern that is shaped by grassroots’ perception and their long-established practice on space.

It is similar to the argument of Alexander, Ishikawa, and Silverstein (1977), that every town and buildings is made by people in the society who share a common language, and the elements of this language are entities called pattern. Hence, pattern can be defined as a kind of conscious arrangement of buildings into a predetermined form(Morris, 1994).

5 To be noted, the author suggested that the influence of natural-world determinants especially topography and local construction materials is reduced after new construction technology evolved. This explanation does not exactly fit with the current state of this case study where the intercourse between water settlement and nature environment is still frequent. However, as this study orientation focuses on spatial pattern, it refers to the impacts of natural-world determinants only for discussing of the origin of settlement formation. Thus, the argument, though not consistent with the current form, will not be discussed in this study.

6 The author suggests that “not only have these forces had major determining effects on historic urban morphology, but also singly, or in combination, they have been mainly responsible for urban formation and growth…while it is urban history’s exceptional results of trade, power, religion and other such determining influences that are conventionally highlighted, the great background mass of ordinary urban development has been shaped by mundane everyday requirements.” (Morris, 1994: p12-13)

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According to Alexander et al. (1977), a pattern language is considered a structure of network. The network is configured by both the scale (from larger pattern to the smaller) and the function (from the structure to the embellishment). The application of different sequence of pattern makes different language and can be considered as the “base-map” of a particular project⁷.

A community scale pattern is organic growth and can be observed from its network connection and boundaries, local environment, growth of housing, and public land for human activities. Pattern at building scale defines the individual buildings and the space between buildings. The overall arrangement of a group of buildings shows its pattern at the height, number of these buildings, the entrances, parking areas and the lines of movement.

These languages fix the position of individual buildings on the site while the components of indoor and outdoor space shape both the volume of the buildings and the volume of the space between the buildings. When the major parts of buildings and the outdoor areas have been given their rough shape, their internal gradients of space and movement define the most important area of a building. While the pattern above gives a scheme of spaces, the final part will be the structural details including construction and materials.

This study will produce a structure of pattern language network according to the study result as a reference of the water settlement’s base-map that may contribute to further study to distinguish similar water settlement.

Refer to the literature of form and pattern, the study develop specific interpretation of the terms applicable in this case study. The relation between spatial form and pattern is interpreted as the diagram shown as Figure 1.4.

1) Form: a visible shape molded by form determinants.

2) Pattern: a kind of conscious arrangement that represents the uniqueness of a shape.

3) Structure: the essential elements to configure form and/or pattern particularly buildings, street, and public space in this study.

7To be noted that, the book aims to standardize universal pattern in order to design a good project. But in this study, we only refer to the components it summarizes to support the observation of the site, and using the concept of “structure of network” to analyze Kukup water settlement’s spatial pattern (without the intention to standardize general design rules of water settlement).

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4) Component: used to describe object(s)’ underlying structure to configure the characteristic of structure

Figure 1.4 Diagram of spatial form and pattern Source: illustrated by the study

Spatial pattern acts as an outcome of continuous history progress and ongoing daily life. The uniqueness of pattern is generated by interaction between buildings, street and public space in different combination under specific physical socio-economic conditions (Lin, 2006). It thus reflects the characteristic of these three structures in different phases (provided they have not been destroyed) as a record of the process of spatial development.

On the other hand, physical socio-economic conditions can be summarized into two major categories - “environment” and “human activities”. Hence the interpretation of the spatial pattern development in this case study shown as Figure 1.5, implies spatial pattern is corresponding to “coastal environment” and “human activities”. The continuous interaction between these two major factors shaped the uniqueness of water settlement’s pattern.

The pattern can be recorded through the analysis of its structures: buildings, street and public space. By observing pattern, we are able to track and derive the social-environment relations and community relationship within a water settlement.

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“Coastal environment” in this study is used to describe specific natural settings at Kukup water settlement - saline water coast with mangrove fringed and swampy mud ground in tropical climate.

Figure 1.5 Shaping process of water settlement's spatial pattern Source: illustrated by the study

Combined with the literature review, the study took reference from the “structure network” of Alexander et al. (1977) when conducting study at community scale and building scale to record spatial pattern by analyzing the characteristic of its three essential structures. Followed by the list of components, the uniqueness of the pattern at community scale can be observed through the combination of building, street and public space, while the pattern at building scale can be observed in its distribution and construction details.

III. The spatial structure of settlement

A settlement can be treated as an organic unit basically formed by buildings (Hillier

& Hanson, 1984) or dwellings place (Sha, 1974). The major structural units of a settlement include housing, facilities, routes and road (F. H. Chen, 1984). They are not only the transformation of space through objects, but also “create and order the empty volumes of space resulting from the object into a pattern” (Alexander et al., 1977).

The process of space transformation through object into pattern can be observed apparently in water settlement where building, street and public space that are entirely built upon an artificial platform on stilt then transformed from a waterlogged space into a

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settlement. The settlement pattern gradually forms during the interaction between these objects.

In the beginning, water stilt houses, the fundamental object in the settlement, were distributed randomly and isolated at riverbank and coast without road connection. It transformed natural territory into artificial. Gradually, other types of object including road and public space were constructed and bring transformation to the original pattern.

Hence, buildings are considered the fundamental structure in the study while its construction and layout has proactive influence to other spatial structure. Furthermore, street and public space bring diversity to the structure of settlement and through the interaction between these structures, the pattern is gradually shaped.

In an organic-growth traditional settlement, the function of street and public space can be varied. According to Yang (2009), traditional settlement without planning was usually built and expanded based on needs and utility preferences of the inhabitants. Due to the growth of the settlement, additional construction of buildings narrows the street.

However, the clustered appearance generates sense of space closure that encourages physical and emotional interaction between inhabitants. Flexible interfaces of the streets become a shared space of daily life not only for accessibility but also for various neighborhood activities that may act as a people-oriented space and enhance activity within the community.

Figure 1.6 Flexible interfaces of streets in traditional settlement Source: Yang, 2009: p. 57

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The multifunction of a street which stimulated from space closure applies to Kukup water settlement. Street acts as a public space for activity and is applied to observe community interaction in the study.

“Public space” in this study is defined by the concept of social production referred from Hsia (1994) that including space for social life, consciousness, spiritual and physical activities. Public space consists of “representation of public space” (imagined space),

“representational public space” (lived space), and “real public space” (real space) shown as Figure 1.7.

Figure 1.7 The social production of public space Source: Hsia, 1994: p 15

“Representation of public space” is resulting from symbolic practice, discursive practice and ideological practice that produces an imagined space. “Representational public space” is consciously living space that physically exists and “real public space” is a configured by physical public facility and service.

The public space of Kukup water settlement fits into this concept and expands from these three dimensions. Initially, the sea and surrounding mangrove forest formed an imagined space that defined their collective identity. Afterwards, some physical space within the neighborhood gradually stimulated social interaction and activities without

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planning and not necessary accompanied by public facilities. Finally, public facilities and services were produced in the process of urban planning and transformed into real public space in the community. As public facilities and services were not the primary public spaces in local villagers’ perception, it was crucial to understand the layout of public space by utilizing the definition of public space mentioned above. The following study in public space will be conducted within these three dimensions in order to define specific perception and characteristic of public space in water settlement.

1.4.2 Study of traditional water settlement in local and foreign cases

Former studies in traditional water settlement in Malaysia are limited and mainly surfaced due to concern of heritage preservation of its community pattern. These studies, however, provide preliminary but important introduction of water settlement in Malaysia that helps identify the influences of environment and human activities to the pattern. A review of Hong Kong Tai-O village is applied in this study for its similar ethnics and lifestyle which was built by the Chinese with the original intention of fishery. Furthermore, the study of Netherlands water buildings provides basic knowledge to water building construction including the consideration of ground and water condition. This section is organized by the study scaling at community and building in order to fit into the designed structure of this study.

I. Community scale concern to spatial pattern and landscape

According to Hassan (2010), existing Malay village settlement can be classified into two types - traditional fishing (water) ⁸ and rural villages. One of the major differences between water and rural village in pattern is housing unit density per hectare. Water village has relative high density in low rise⁹ housing than low rise housing in rural village.

8 The definition of “fishing village” in Hassan’s study is equal to the term “water settlement/village” in this study. The following description uses “water settlement/village” despite of “fishing” in consideration of consistency.

9 The author mentioned that “Low-rise means the houses with one story houses and low density… Low density means 4 or less housing units built in one acre, which typifies a typical traditional Malay houses in rural areas ranging from 1 to 4 house units per acre”

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Water village has similar pattern to traditional old Malay port city based on historical records. It evolved highly related to local livelihood and natural settings and thus, preliminary survey to local geographical and topographical condition is essential to analyze spatial form of water settlement.

Figure 1.8 Port City during Johor Sultanate Kingdom in 16th Century Source: Courtesy of Kota Johor Lama Museum

The research found that water village was usually built along coastal area to leverage the strategic location for fishery activities. Existing curvilinear topographical contour line plays a significant factor in influencing the development of the spatial pattern.

For internal spatial pattern, he classified the distribution into several temporal layers and found that the first layer of settlement commonly included jetties, workshops and houses proved that livelihood is the essential element of a settlement’s set up. According to the original locations and direction of expansion, he summarized in the settlement patterns into five types - inland water village, outward water village, parallel water village, water village and river mouth water village shown as Figure 1.9.

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Figure 1.9 Patterns of water village Source: Hassan, 2010

Original location and topographical condition mentioned in the study can be considered as nature world determinant mentioned in spatial form review. This study, hence, supports the perspective that the form of water village is highly related to the nature settings. Kukup Laut water village and Ayer Masin water village fit into the pattern category of parallel water village and river mouth water village.

Another case study of water settlement in Chew Jetty, Penang provided reference to local sense of place (Ng, 2013). The study found that, water village’s patterns, proximity and scale of the built environment were apparently different from outside the neighborhood and contributed to a sense of community. This sense of place¹⁰ of water village derives

Another case study of water settlement in Chew Jetty, Penang provided reference to local sense of place (Ng, 2013). The study found that, water village’s patterns, proximity and scale of the built environment were apparently different from outside the neighborhood and contributed to a sense of community. This sense of place¹⁰ of water village derives